Chapter 10 psych

Summary

10.1 Motivation

Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external factors. Multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation. More biologically oriented theories deal with the ways that instincts and the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivate behavior. Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behaviors, and there are a number of theories that focus on a variety of social motives. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a model that shows the relationship among multiple motives that range from lower-level physiological needs to the very high level of self-actualization.

10.2 Hunger and Eating

Hunger and satiety are highly regulated processes that result in a person maintaining a fairly stable weight that is resistant to change. When more calories are consumed than expended, a person will store excess energy as fat. Being significantly overweight adds substantially to a person’s health risks and problems, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain cancers, and other medical issues. Sociocultural factors that emphasize thinness as a beauty ideal and a genetic predisposition contribute to the development of eating disorders in many young females, though eating disorders span ages and genders.

10.3 Sexual Behavior

The hypothalamus and structures of the limbic system are important in sexual behavior and motivation. There is evidence to suggest that our motivation to engage in sexual behavior and our ability to do so are related, but separate, processes. Alfred Kinsey conducted large-scale survey research that demonstrated the incredible diversity of human sexuality. William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed individuals engaging in sexual behavior in developing their concept of the sexual response cycle. While often interchanged, sexual orientation and gender identity are related, but distinct, concepts.

10.4 Emotion

Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal. Various theories have been put forward to explain our emotional experiences. The James-Lange theory asserts that emotions arise as a function of physiological arousal. The Cannon-Bard theory maintains that emotional experience occurs simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal. The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory suggests that physiological arousal receives cognitive labels as a function of the relevant context and that these two factors together result in an emotional experience.

The limbic system is the brain’s emotional circuit, which includes the amygdala and the hippocampus. Both of these structures are implicated in playing a role in normal emotional processing as well as in psychological mood and anxiety disorders. Increased amygdala activity is associated with learning to fear, and it is seen in individuals who are at risk for or suffering from mood disorders. The volume of the hippocampus has been

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shown to be reduced in individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder.

The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions seems to be universal regardless of cultural background. However, there are cultural display rules which influence how often and under what circumstances various emotions can be expressed. Tone of voice and body language also serve as a means by which we communicate information about our emotional states.

Outline for Summary on Motivation, Hunger, Sexual Behavior, and Emotion

10.1 Motivation

  • Definition: Motivation to engage in behavior from internal/external factors.

  • Theories of Motivation:

    • Biological Theories: Focus on instincts and homeostasis.

    • Bandura's Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability influences motivation.

    • Social Motives: Various theories addressing social influences.

    • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

      • Ranges from physiological needs to self-actualization.

10.2 Hunger and Eating

  • Regulation of Hunger and Satiety:

    • Processes maintain stable body weight.

    • Excess calorie consumption leads to fat storage.

  • Health Risks of Overweight:

    • Increased risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancers.

  • Sociocultural Influences:

    • Thinness as a beauty ideal.

    • Genetic predisposition to eating disorders.

    • Eating disorders affect various ages and genders.

10.3 Sexual Behavior

  • Biological Basis:

    • Role of hypothalamus and limbic system in sexual motivation.

  • Motivation vs. Ability:

    • Distinction between motivation to engage in sexual behavior and the ability to do so.

  • Research Contributions:

    • Alfred Kinsey: Survey research on human sexuality diversity.

    • Masters and Johnson: Concept of the sexual response cycle.

  • Sexual Orientation vs. Gender Identity:

    • Related but distinct concepts.

10.4 Emotion

  • Definition of Emotions:

    • Subjective experiences with physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.

  • Theories of Emotion:

    • James-Lange Theory: Emotions arise from physiological arousal.

    • Cannon-Bard Theory: Simultaneous emotional experience and arousal.

    • Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Contextual cognitive labels influence emotional experience.

  • Brain Structures:

    • Limbic System: Includes amygdala and hippocampus, crucial for emotional processing.

    • Amygdala: Associated with fear learning and mood disorders.

    • Hippocampus: Volume reduction linked to PTSD.

  • Universal Emotion Expression:

    • Facial expressions are culturally universal.