SOCI - Race and Ethnicity Midterm Exam

What is racialization?

The social process of assigning racial meaning or significance to groups, traits, or behaviors.

How does racialization lead to racism?

When racial differences are used to justify unequal treatment or negative judgment of certain groups.

What is “new racism” according to Barker (1981)?

A modern form of racism that uses culturally coded or racially neutral language to express prejudice, rather than biology.

How is new racism different from old (biological) racism?

It avoids apparent references to race and instead focuses on cultural differences, values, or behaviors.

What are the three fears that define anti-immigrant racism in the U.S.?

• Fear of non-English languages destroying American identity

• Fear of racialized immigrants abusing multiculturalism and affirmative action

• Fear of immigrants draining public services

What is symbolic racism

A form of racism that claims programs helping minorities conflict with Western values like equality and freedom.

Why is the Black/White divide considered most significant in the U.S.?

Scholars argue it's the most persistent and deep-rooted racial division in American society.

What is democratic racism in Canada?

A belief system that supports fairness and equality while simultaneously justifying or ignoring racial discrimination.

What are the four discourses of democratic racism?

• Colour-blindness

• Equal opportunity

• Blaming the victim

• Multiculturalism

How does multiculturalism act as a framework of democratic racism?

It celebrates diversity in superficial ways (like food and festivals) while avoiding deeper issues like systemic racism.

What is John Porter's Vertical Mosaic theory?

It argues that ethnic affiliation determines class membership in Canada, limiting mobility (blocked mobility thesis).

According to Porter, what are the two types of assimilation required for social mobility?

• Behavioral assimilation – adopting dominant cultural traits.

• Structural assimilation – integrating into economic, political, and social institutions.

What are the two goals of conflict/political economy perspectives on race and ethnicity?

• Explain the historical development of race and ethnicity.

• Explain persistent social inequalities.

What assumptions underlie conflict/political economy theories?

• Unequal distribution of resources and power.

• People are born into social structures that both enable and constrain them.

• Race and class often overlap.

How do these theories explain racism?

Racism is used to justify exploitation and maintain capitalist systems (e.g., slavery as a labor system justified by race).

How does the conflict perspective explain racism in relation to labour?

• Racism justifies cheap labor and exploitation.

• Capitalists use racial divisions to divide workers, reduce unity, and distract from real sources of inequality.

How does immigration relate to labor exploitation in this theory?

Immigration policy is used to regulate and supply cheap labor based on economic needs.

What is the Split Labour Market Theory?

A theory explaining ethnic conflict as rooted in wage differences between high-paid and low-paid workers.

Why do high-wage workers sometimes oppose immigrant labor?

They fear competition and respond with racism to limit job access for lower-paid, non-white workers.

What is intersectionality?

A framework viewing race, class, and gender as interlocking systems of power that shape unequal experiences.

Who introduced the concept of the matrix of domination?

Patricia Hill Collins (2000). It refers to simultaneous experiences of privilege and oppression.

What is Critical Race Theory (CRT)?

A legal framework developed in the 1970s that critiques how laws and institutions maintain racial inequalities.

What are key ideas in CRT?

• Racial inequality is embedded in systems and language.

• Challenges objectivity, meritocracy, and colour-blindness.

• Values personal stories and lived experiences.

• Goal: racial justice and structural change.

What are the four broad patterns of nation-building in Canada related to race and ethnicity?

Indigenous/settler relations, French/English relations, immigration control, and census (identification and categorization).

How long have Indigenous peoples been present in what is now Canada

Since time immemorial; they are original inhabitants, not immigrants.

What was the purpose of the 1763 Royal Proclamation in Indigenous/settler relations?

Recognized Indigenous land rights, prohibited land taking without consent, and mandated government involvement in treaty agreements.

How did the fur trade affect settler treatment of Indigenous peoples?

Racist attitudes were subdued due to economic and military needs; Indigenous people were treated strategically well to maintain fur trade success.

What were land surrender treaties and what did they generally include?

Agreements to extinguish Indigenous land title, usually granting reserve lands, cash annuities, and agricultural implements.

What was the Indian Act of 1876 and what was its role?

A central assimilationist policy aimed at controlling Indigenous peoples, including residential schools and restricting Indigenous culture.

What was the “myth of the two founding nations” narrative?

The idea that Canada’s founding peoples were only the French and English, ignoring contributions of others.

How did British authorities handle French Canadians after 1763?

They allowed the Catholic Church, French civil law, and language, but maintained social control over mainly poor French-Canadian peasants.

What major social changes occurred during Quebec’s Quiet Revolution in the 1960s?

Secularization, civil service reform, economic nationalization, cultural/linguistic revival, and growing sovereignty movement.

What were the two key functions of immigrants in post-Confederation Canada?

Serving as economic agents (cheap labor) and potential settlers for population growth.

Which competing social forces shaped early 20th-century Canadian immigration control?

Employers wanting cheap labor, workers fearing competition, social purity advocates, politicians, law enforcement, doctors, and bureaucrats.

What role did race and ethnicity play in historic Canadian immigration policies?

Policies sought to exclude “unsuitable” racial and ethnic groups, creating a racial hierarchy favoring white Europeans.

What was the Chinese Head Tax and what was its purpose?

A tax levied on Chinese immigrants to restrict their entry, while exempting wealthy Chinese capitalists.

How did the continuous journey stipulation limit Indian immigration?

Required immigrants to arrive by direct journey from their home country, effectively blocking most Indian immigrants.

What discriminatory actions targeted other groups such as Ukrainians, Japanese, and Italians in Canada?

Internment during WWI and WWII, property confiscation, and deportation.

What shift did the 1960s points system introduce in Canadian immigration policy?

It rationalized and deracialized immigrant selection by using objective criteria like education, age, language, and skills.

What three major factors contributed to the deracialization of immigration control in Canada?

Evolving bureaucratic perceptions, Canada’s role as a middle power in international relations, and changing economic needs.

What role does the census play in race and ethnic relations in Canada?

• It is a tool for identifying and categorizing populations, shaping how race and ethnicity are understood and managed within nation-building.

Why do Indigenous treaties remain relevant today?

• There are ongoing disputes over interpretation, government negligence, land entitlements, and rights to hunt/fish on Crown land, reflecting institutionalized racism and colonial legacies.

Q: Besides the Indian Act, what other policies aimed at Indigenous assimilation existed?

The 1857 Act for the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes and the residential school system, which enforced cultural genocide and disrupted Indigenous communities.

How does the political economy perspective explain immigration control?

• It highlights how employers seek cheap labor while workers fear competition; racism is used as a tool to divide and control labor, shaping immigration policies.

What are push and pull factors in immigration?

• Push factors are reasons migrants leave their home countries (e.g., poverty, conflict); pull factors attract them to Canada (e.g., jobs, safety, family).

Besides economic contributions, what non-economic factors influence immigration selection?

Social purity concerns, gender and moral character assessments, political loyalty, health, and assimilation potential.

What are the major categories of immigration in Canada?

Economic immigrants, family class immigrants, and humanitarian/refugee immigrants.

How can migrants lose legal status in Canada?

Through unauthorized entry, visa overstays, or failed refugee claims.

What changed in immigration after the 1960s?

Canada got rid of racist rules. Before: mostly white immigrants. After: more people from Asia & Middle East.

What’s the political economy view of immigration?

Immigrants = workers. They’re brought in to help the economy, not just for kindness.

How do immigrants help capitalism?

1) They’re already trained (saves money)
2) They’ll do hard/low-paid jobs
3) Racism keeps workers divided so they don’t unite

What’s missing in the political economy View?

Ignores other reasons Canada brings people in — Like fixing population problems are helping families reunite

What are the three ways to get a permanent residency in Canada?

Economic class (Job skills)

Family class (sponsorship)

Refugee/humanitarian (protection)

How can someone become a refugee in Canada?

1) Apply from outside through the UN

2) apply after arriving in Canada

What are the three types of refugee sponsorship?

1) Government pays for one year

2) private groups pay for one year

3) Mix of both (blended)

What’s the safe third country agreement?

if you pass through the US, you can’t ask for asylum in Canada (Unless there’s an exception)

What are the main types of economic immigrants?

1) Skilled workers

2) caregivers

3) provincial nominees

(Business class is now rare)

What’s express entry?

A points system (since 2015) That score of people on language, job skills, age, education, etc.

What’s the caregiver program?

Mostly women (Especially from the Philippines) Work as nannies or support workers — after two years plus some education they can apply for permanent residency — but it’s hard and often unfair

What’s the provincial nominee program?

Provinces choose immigrants who can help fill local jobs — They skip the federal point system

What’s the family class?

If you have a close family member in Canada, they can sponsor you — They have to promise to support you (3-20 Years)

are family immigrants a burden?

No, as they help with emotional support mental health and settling into life here

Who are temporary foreign workers?

People brought to do short-term jobs (Like farming or caregiving) Usually can’t stay permanently — Very vulnerable

What are the two big programs for temporary workers?

1) Temporary foreign worker program

2) international mobility program

Who are non-status immigrants

People in Canada without legal status — how does this happen? — This can happen if they sneak , Stayed after Visa expired, Or got denied refugee status

What are the four meanings of multiculturalism in Canada?

1) Demographic reality

2) government ideology

3) way to compete for resources

4) set of programs and policies

Why is multiculturalism a demographic reality?

Canada is made up Of 100+ ethnic groups — It’s never been one race/culture

What is multiculturalism as an ideology?

It supports diversity and pluralism — Let people define themselves and treats all cultures as valuable

How is multiculturalism about competition?

Groups use it to gain power and funding (ex; ethnic vote) it also helps prevent conflict like tensions with Quebec or western alienation

What are some official multicultural programs?

Antiracist training, Cultural events, Language programs, Diversity policies in institutions

What is folkloric multiculturalism? (1970s)

Celebrate your culture! — Focussed on food, clothes, dance, and learning, English or French

What is institutional multiculturalism? (1980s)

Shift to deeper goals — Fix race issues in school‘s jobs in law made official by the 1988 multiculturalism act (Also seen as good for business!)

What is civic multiculturalism? (1990s)

Focus on citizenship unity in building one Canadian identity — Everyone is responsible for making society inclusive

What is integrative multiculturalism (2000s to now)

Immigrants are expected to integrate into Canadian life and support democracy, while institutions become more antiracist and inclusive

what are the four stages of multiculturalism in Canada?

Folkloric multiculturalism, institutional multiculturalism, Civic multiculturalism, and integrative multiculturalism

What are the two main critiques of multiculturalism?

1) It’s not effective

2) It works too well (And erases unity)

What’s the “song and dance” critique

Too surface level — Culture becomes about food and music while racism And inequalitys stay untouched (stasiulis 1980)

What does bannerji (2000) argue?

Multiculturalism hides real problems, like racism and power — making culture seem like both the problem and the fact

What’s the “Disney-fixation” critique

Culture becomes entertainment — People are stereotyped — Real issues of racism and equality and power are ignored

Was the critique from French Canadians and indigenous people

They feel multiculturalism reduces their status — As if they’re just another minority (It threatens indigenous sovereignty, and Quebecs national identity)

What does Bissoondath (1994) say about multiculturalism

It creates divisions instead of unity — Too much focus on difference, not enough on common identity

What’s the criticism around art and culture funding?

“Ethnic” arts are underfunded sidelined— Most resources go to euro American styles

How does multiculturalism relate to racism?

Critics say your names racism, but doesn’t fight it — Focus is on inclusion not on fixing power imbalances

Is everything allowed in multiculturalism?

No — Canada still banned harmful practises - Diversity is accepted, but within the law and human rights

Does multiculturalism help immigrants integrate?

Yes

• Higher rates of citizenship

• Intermarriage

• Stronger language skills

• Better education outcomes

• Sense of belonging

What did Banting and Kymlicka (2010) say?

Multiculturalism supports unity and inclusion — Helps immigrants feel Canadian without giving up their roots

What did bloemraad (2006) find in her study?

Vietnamese immigrants in Toronto felt more like citizens than those in Boston — Thanks to community support and welcoming policies