The Columbian Exchange and Its Global Impact

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, technology, and diseases between the Old World and the New World following Christopher Columbus' voyages in 1492.

Henry the Navigator

A Portuguese prince who played a crucial role in early exploration by supporting maritime expeditions and establishing a school for navigation.

Vasco da Gama

A Portuguese explorer who successfully reached India by sailing around Africa's Cape of Good Hope in 1498, establishing a direct sea route to Asia.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian navigator sponsored by Spain who set sail in 1492 searching for a westward route to Asia and instead encountered the Caribbean.

Ferdinand Magellan

A Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, proving that the Earth was round and larger than previously thought.

Taino People

The indigenous people of the Caribbean who were among the first to encounter Columbus and were nearly wiped out due to European diseases and forced labor.

Lacandons

A Maya group that resisted European colonization and maintained their traditional way of life in the dense rainforests of Central America.

Ferdinand and Isabella

The Catholic Monarchs of Spain who financed Columbus' 1492 voyage and aimed to expand Spanish influence and spread Christianity.

Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

The capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, which cut off many European trade routes to Asia.

Columbus' Voyages

Columbus made four voyages across the Atlantic from 1492 to 1504, resulting in permanent European colonization and the expansion of the Columbian Exchange.

Da Gama Rounding the African Cape

Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around Africa's Cape of Good Hope in 1498, establishing Portugal's dominance in the spice trade.

Treaty of Tordesillas

An agreement brokered by the Pope in 1494 that divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal.

Caravel

A small, fast, and maneuverable ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century.

Caravel

A small, fast, and maneuverable ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century, ideal for long voyages against the wind.

Smallpox

A disease introduced to the Americas by Europeans, causing catastrophic population declines among indigenous peoples, particularly devastating Native American societies that lacked immunity.

Malaria

A disease that became prevalent in tropical regions of the Americas, influencing settlement patterns and the use of African slaves, who had partial resistance.

European diseases

Diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza that wiped out up to 90% of indigenous populations in the Americas.

Trans-Atlantic slave trade

The trade that was fueled by labor shortages in the Americas, leading Europeans to import African slaves.

Columbus' Motives

To find a westward route to Asia for spices and wealth, expand Spanish influence, convert non-Christians, and seek personal fame and financial rewards.

Portuguese Atlantic Expansion

The establishment of sugar plantations in the Atlantic islands, which later expanded to Brazil and the Caribbean, relying heavily on African slave labor.

Oliver Cromwell

An English Puritan military leader and political figure who led the Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War and ruled as Lord Protector of England.

St. Ignatius of Loyola

A Spanish nobleman who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in response to the Protestant Reformation, playing a key role in the Counter-Reformation.

Martin Luther

A German monk and theologian whose 95 Theses challenged the Catholic Church, sparking the Protestant Reformation and emphasizing salvation through faith alone.

John Calvin

A French Protestant reformer who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and a strict moral code, influencing Protestant movements in various regions.

Pope Leo X

The Pope during Martin Luther's rise, who excommunicated Luther for challenging the Catholic Church's authority and doctrines.

Henry VIII

The King of England who broke with the Catholic Church to establish the Church of England, leading to the English Reformation.

Elizabeth I

The Protestant queen of England who stabilized the nation after religious turmoil.

Effects of the Exchange

Massive population growth in Europe due to new staple crops, environmental changes in the Americas, and increased forced labor systems.

What was traded to the Americas

Horses, cattle, sheep, wheat, sugarcane, coffee, smallpox, and Christianity.

What was traded to Europe

Potatoes, maize, tomatoes, tobacco, cacao, and syphilis.

Plantation System

A system established by Portugal that relied heavily on African slave labor for cash crops, creating a foundation for the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

Elizabethan Era

Her reign saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), the expansion of English exploration, and the flourishing of the arts.

William Shakespeare

England's most famous playwright and poet, whose works reflected themes of power, human nature, and the political struggles of his time.

Mary I

The Catholic daughter of Henry VIII who attempted to restore Catholicism in England, known as 'Bloody Mary' for her persecution of Protestants.

Frederick the Great

The King of Prussia who modernized the military, expanded Prussian territory, and promoted Enlightenment ideas.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer and advocate for women's rights, whose book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) argued for women's education and equality.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian astronomer and physicist who supported heliocentrism and was tried by the Catholic Church for heresy.

Louis XIV

The 'Sun King' of France, an absolute monarch who centralized power and built Versailles, leading to costly wars and economic strain.

René Descartes

A French philosopher and mathematician known for rationalism, emphasizing reason as the foundation of knowledge.

Medici Family

A powerful banking family in Florence who were patrons of the arts and rulers of the city, fueling the Renaissance.

Religious Wars

A series of conflicts in Europe between Catholics and Protestants, including the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).

Agricultural Revolution

Innovations such as crop rotation and selective breeding increased food production, supporting population growth.

Consumer Revolution

A rise in demand for luxury goods, fueled by global trade and the expansion of markets.

18th-Century Industrialization

Early mechanization in textiles and mining transformed production, leading to economic shifts and urbanization.

Development of the Printing Press

Johannes Gutenberg's invention revolutionized communication, allowing mass production of books.

Spanish Armada

A failed attempt by Spain to invade England in 1588, marking a decline in Spanish naval dominance.

Glorious Revolution

The overthrow of James II of England and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under William and Mary.

Treaty of Westphalia

Ended the Thirty Years' War and established the modern system of sovereign states.

Sale of Indulgences

A practice in the Catholic Church where people could buy forgiveness for sins, triggering the Protestant Reformation.

Holy Roman Empire

A fragmented political entity in Central Europe that lasted from the medieval period to 1806.

Old Regime

The pre-revolutionary social and political system in France, characterized by a rigid class structure with the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility), and Third Estate (commoners).

Autocracy

A system of government where one ruler has absolute power, as seen in Louis XIV's France and Tsarist Russia.

Enclosure

The consolidation of farmland in Britain, which increased agricultural efficiency but displaced peasant farmers.

Ghettos

Segregated areas where minority groups, especially Jews, were forced to live in European cities.

Absolutism

A form of government where the monarch holds all power, often justified by the divine right of kings.

Divine Right of Kings

The belief that monarchs derive their authority from God, justifying their absolute rule.

Parliamentary Monarchy

A system where the monarchy exists alongside an elected parliament, limiting royal power.

95 Theses (1517)

Martin Luther's list of criticisms against the Catholic Church, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

Puritans

English Protestants who sought to 'purify' the Church of England. Many later emigrated to North America.

Junkers

The Prussian nobility who controlled land and military power under leaders like Frederick the Great.

Streltsy

Russian elite military units that often rebelled against the tsars, including under Peter the Great.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Protestant reforms led to Catholic responses like the Council of Trent and the formation of the Jesuits.

Scientific Revolution

Thinkers like Galileo, Newton, and Descartes challenged medieval views, promoting observation and reason.

Religious Wars

The violence between Catholics and Protestants reshaped European politics and power structures.

Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

A war over Maria Theresa's right to rule Austria, involving multiple European powers.

Inca

A powerful civilization in the Andes, known for advanced engineering, agriculture, and administration. The empire fell to Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s.

Aztec

A Mesoamerican empire centered in Tenochtitlán (modern-day Mexico City). The Aztecs were known for their military power, human sacrifices, and complex society before their conquest by Hernán Cortés in 1521.

Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)

A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that defeated the Aztec Empire, aided by alliances with indigenous groups and the spread of smallpox.

Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541)

A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in 1532, capturing and executing Emperor Atahualpa.

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618)

An English explorer who attempted to establish the failed Roanoke Colony in North America and promoted English colonization.

Conquistadores

Spanish military leaders who led expeditions in the New World, seeking wealth and expanding Spanish rule.

Moctezuma II (1466-1520)

The last fully independent Aztec emperor.

Bartolomé de las Casas

A Spanish priest who advocated for indigenous rights and opposed the encomienda system, pushing for the New Laws to protect Native Americans.

Fall of Tenochtitlán

Cortés and his allies besieged and destroyed the Aztec capital, marking the end of the Aztec Empire.

Reconquista

The long conflict where Christian kingdoms reclaimed Spain from Muslim rule. The victory in 1492 gave Spain the confidence and resources to fund Columbus' voyages.

Northwest Passage

A mythical sea route through North America sought by European explorers to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Maroon Communities

Settlements of escaped African slaves in the Americas, particularly in Brazil, the Caribbean, and the Southern U.S.

Joint-stock companies

Businesses where investors pooled money to fund colonial ventures, such as the Virginia Company, which established Jamestown (1607).

Potosí Silver Mine

A massive silver deposit in modern-day Bolivia that fueled Spain's global economy but led to the exploitation of indigenous laborers through the mita system.

Mercantilism

An economic system where European nations sought to increase wealth through colonies, trade monopolies, and exporting more than they imported.

Capitalism

The rise of private ownership and market-driven economies, accelerated by the profits from colonial trade.

Encomienda System

A Spanish labor system that granted settlers the right to force indigenous people to work in exchange for 'protection' and Christian conversion.

New Laws (1542)

Reforms by King Charles V to limit the abuse of the encomienda system. Though largely ignored, they reflected growing concern for indigenous rights.

Hacienda

Large Spanish agricultural estates that replaced encomiendas and relied on forced labor.

Repartimiento

A labor system that required indigenous people to work for the Spanish for part of the year, often in mines or plantations.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born elites who held top positions in the New World's colonial administration.

Creoles

American-born descendants of Spanish settlers who were often wealthy but politically restricted.

Zambos

People of mixed African and indigenous ancestry, often marginalized in colonial society.

Sociedad de Castas

A racial and social hierarchy in Spanish America based on ancestry, with Peninsulares at the top and Africans and indigenous people at the bottom.

Mita System

A forced labor system adapted by the Spanish from the Incan practice, used to supply labor for silver mines.

Triangular Trade

A trade system where Europe sent manufactured goods to Africa, Africa sent enslaved Africans to the Americas, and the Americas sent sugar, tobacco, cotton, and silver back to Europe.

Human Impact of Slave Trade

The devastation of African societies due to the loss of millions of people, harsh conditions of slavery, particularly in the Caribbean and Brazil, and the enrichment of European economies, fueling the Industrial Revolution.

Potosí and Zacatecas mines

Supplied Spain with vast wealth, leading to inflation in Spain and economic struggles.

Silver

Used in trade with China, fueling the first global economy.

Trans-Atlantic slave trade

One of the most devastating events in African history, fundamentally reshaping societies, economies, and cultures.

Askia Muhammad Toure

A ruler of the Songhai Empire, known for expanding its territory, promoting Islam, and reforming government and trade systems.

Olaudah Equiano

A former enslaved African who wrote a detailed autobiography describing the Middle Passage and the horrors of slavery, becoming an important abolitionist.

Edward Colston

A British merchant and key figure in the Royal African Company, which played a significant role in the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

Mansa Musa

The Mali Empire's most famous ruler, known for his vast wealth and his pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca.

Lancados

Portuguese traders who settled along the West African coast, intermarried with local populations, and played a role in the early slave trade.