Unit 2: Economic Indicators and the Business Cycle (Princeton Review AP Macroeconomics 2023 [21st Edition])

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83 Terms

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GDP

the total value of all final goods and services produced in a year within a country

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GDP does not include…

intermediate goods, repurchase of goods, tranfer payments (public and private), underground activity, and financial transactions

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GDP increases with…

expenditures on natural disasters, epidemics, war, and crime

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National Income

the sum of income earned by factors of production owned by a country’s citizens

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What does national income include?

wages, salaries, fringe benefits paid for labor services, rent paid for the use of land and buildings, interest paid for the use of money, and profits recieved for the use of capital resources

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Personal Income

the money income received by households before personal income taxes are subtracted

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Disposable Income

the amount of money households have available for spending and saving after income taxes have been deducted (personal income minus personal income taxes)

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The Two Methods to Calculate GDP

expenditure and income approaches

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Expenditure Approach

adds up spending by households, firms, the government, and the rest of the world

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Expenditure Approach Formula

GDP = C + I + G + (X - M)

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Income Approach

calculates GDP by summing all incomes earned by factors of production

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Depreciation

the decline of the value of capital over time due to wear or obsolescence

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Why is depreciation part of the income approach?

they are subtracted from corporate profits before the calculation, so they must be re-added to capture the value of output needed to replace or repair worn out buildings and machinery

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Subsidy Payments

financial assistance provided by the government to support a business or economic sector, aimed at encouraging production and reducing market prices

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Why are subsidies not part of GDP?

subsidies are not included in GDP because they are transfers of money as part of someone’s income rather than payments for goods or services, and thus do not reflect the value of production.

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Net Income of Foreign Workers

the total earnings of foreign workers in a country that are not included in GDP calculations, as they represent income sent back to their home countries

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If someone were to make a movie in another country, their income would be part of the ___, but the movie would be part of the other country’s _____.

NI (National Income); GDP

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Income Approach Formula

GDP = NI + Depreciation - Subsidies + Net Income of Foreigners

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Net Domestic Product Formula

GDP - Depreciation

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What does NDP represent?

how much output is left over for consumption and additions to capital after accounting for depreciation of capital/used up capital

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Circular Flow Model

a model that illustrates how money, goods, and services move through the economy between households and firms

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Households supply what to factor markets?

the factors of production (land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship)

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The factor markets supply what to firms?

inputs (the factors of production [land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship])

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Firms supply what to product markets?

goods and services to sell

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Product markets supply what to households?

consumer goods and services to purchase

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Households supply what to product markets?

expenditures for goods and services

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Product markets supply what for firms?

revenues

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Firms supply what for factor markets?

wages, rent, interest, and profits

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Factor markets supply what for households?

income and employment opportunities

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If payments from firms to households for inputs differ from the payments from households to firms for goods and services, the firms are…

experiencing profits or losses

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Aggregate Income Formula

Aggregate Income = Aggregate Expenditure = GDP

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The equalities of the circular flow model hold true when…

government and international transactions are included

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Labor Force

employed and unemployed adults

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Unemployed

a participant of the labor force who is able to work and is looking for work in the past four weeks

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Labor Force Participation rate

the number of people in the labor force / the working-age population

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Unemployment Rate

the number of unemployed workers divided by the number in the labor force multiplied by 100

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Frictional Unemployment

unemployed workers and firms search for the best job matches (like being between jobs)

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Structural Unemployment

skills mismatch resulting from technological changes or shifts in the economy, leading to long-term joblessness for certain workers

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Cyclical Unemployment

downturns in the business cycle resulting in layoffs and reduced demand for workers

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Seasonal Unemployment

occurs when workers are unemployed at certain times of the year when demand for their labor is lower, such as agricultural or holiday-related jobs

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Discouraged Workers

Individuals who have given up looking for work due to a belief that no jobs are available for them, thus are not counted in the unemployment rate

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Dishonest Workers

individuals who engage in deceptive practices or fraud in the work force to recieve unemployment benefits

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Natural Rate of Unemployment

the level of unemployment that exists when the economy is at full employment, including frictional and structural unemployment but not cyclical unemployment

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Full Employment

the situation in which all available labor resources are being utilized in the most efficient way possible, with minimal frictional and structural unemployment (natural rate of unemployment)

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Effects of High Rates of Unemployment

reduction in self-confidence, crime, family breakup, and depression

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Okun’s Law

for every 1% increase in unemployment, output falls by 2-3%

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Inflation

sustained increase in the overall price level

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Deflation

sustained decrease in the overall price level

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Nominal Salary

the amount of money paid to an employee without adjusting for inflation

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Real Salary

the amount of money paid to an employee, adjusted for inflation, reflecting the purchasing power of the salary

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Money Illusion

the tendency of people to think of currency in nominal terms rather than real terms, leading to misinterpretations of purchasing power due to inflation through potential excessive spending

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Effects of Inflation

stores change prices, incomes that increase at a rate less than inflation lose value, the value of interest payments does not increase when inflation decreases, social tensions, costs of time people are making to hold cash by going to the ATM frequently, the unit of account is unstable, growth in money supply

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Who benefits from inflation and why?

borrowers; at fixed interest rates, they pay back money in less value to the bank

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Who is hurt by inflation and why?

lenders; the value of money repaid is less than the initial amount loaned, leading to a loss in purchasing power

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Consumer Price Index

a measure used by the government that examines the average change over time in the prices paid by consumers for a basket of goods and services, reflecting inflation levels

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CPI Formula

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Inflatio Between Years Y & Z Formula

(CPI in Year Z / CPI in Year Y) - 1) x 100

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Real GDP Formula

(Nominal GDP / CPI) x 100

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Why might the CPI overestimate inflation?

the price of goods could have considerably gone up, and improvements or price changes in products not in the base year are excluded

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Producer Price Index

an index that measures the average change over time in the selling prices received by domestic producers for their output

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GDP Deflator

alternative general price index that reflects the importance of products in current market baskets

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GDP Deflator Formula

(nominal GDP / Real GDP) x 100 OR (cost of current basket at current price / cost of current basket at base year prices) x 100

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Real GDP Formula

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Fluctuations in the Short Run in the Economy

expansion and contraction

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Economic Growth occurs in the…

long-run

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Business Cycles

fluctuations in aggregate output and employment

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Fluctuations in business cycles are caused by…

changes is aggregate supply and demand

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Periods between expansion and recession (respectively) are shown as…

a peak with a positive output gap

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Periods between recession and expansion (respectively) are shown as…

a trough with a negative output gap

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Recessions are shown on the business cycle graph by…

downward slope in real GDP over time

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Expansions are shown on the business cycle graph by…

upward slope in real GDP over time

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In the long-run, growth occurs despite…

recessions in the short-run

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Potential Output

the highest level of economic output that an economy can sustain; when unemployment = natural rate

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Potential Output is also known as…

Full-Employment Output

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Aggregate Production Function

a mathematical relationship showing the output of an economy (real GDP) based on employment

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While real GDP increases along with employment, it experiences…

dminishing marginal returns

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Classical Economists

believed that free markets regulate themselves and that economies are self-correcting even though there may be quick fluctuations in wages, prices, and interest rates

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Say’s Law

supply creates its own demand; supported by classical economists

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John Meynard Keynes’s argument towards classical economists

investment demand depends more on expectations abou the prosperity of the economy than on interest rates

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Depression Range

where excess capacity and unemployment allow increases in output and income without forcing the price level to increase; Keynesian

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Difference in Classical and Keynesian AS Curves

classical AS is vertical, while Keynesian AS is horizontal as a depression range until it reaches full employment and it turns vertical

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Keynes blamed the existence of unemployment and the problem of the economy not self-correcting on…

sticky wages

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Sticky Wages

a theory in the short run that suggests nominal wages are slow to adjust to changing economic conditions preventing the labor market from clearing and leading to prolonged periods of unemployment