Cog Exam 3 - YOU GOT THIS!

Gain Frame

People are loss aversive, prefer smaller certain gains than larger, uncertain ones

Loss Frame

Framing something as negatively framed means that people will be more likely to risk seek to avoid losses

Loss aversion

People treat the same amount of loss as larger than the same amount of gain

Affective forecasting

Your predictions about your own future emotions, often inaccurate

Focalism

Focusing on a future event without thinking of the effects or consequences of other events

Impact bias 

Overestimating intensity and duration of emotions

Categorical syllogisms

Logical arguments containing two premises and a conclusion

Belief bias

If a syllogisms conclusion happens to be something people believe is true anyways, they’re likely to judge it as logical regardless

Frequency estimate

Assessment of how often various events have occurred in the past

Attribute substitution

Relying on easily assessed information as a proxy for needed information

Heuristics

Efficient strategies that usually lead to the correct answer

Availability heuristic

the ease with which examples come to mind is a proxy for frequency or likelihood

Representativeness heuristic

Assumption that resemblance to prototype reflects probability

Assumption of homogeneity

Expectation that each individual is representative of the category overall

Gamblers fallacy

False idea that outcome of previous events determines the course of future events

conjunction fallacy

Overestimation of conjunction of events

Dual-process model type one

Fast and automatic thinking, reliance on heuristics

dual process thinking type 2 

slower, more effortful thinking. More likely to be correct. 

utility maximization

choosing the option with the greatest expected value

covariation

one thing is correlated with the other and is there whenever the other is

base-rate variation 

Information about how frequently something occurs in general

induction

Making predictions based on the knowledge that you already have

deduction

Starting with claims or assertions that you count as a given and asking what follows from this presence

problem solving

process by which one determines the steps needed to reach a goal

problem space

the set of all states that can be reached in solving the problem

hill-climbing strategy

At each step in solving a problem, choose the option that moves you in the direction of your goal

Means-end analysis

using means in order to make your current state more like your goal state

ill-defined problem

the goal state and the means are not clearly specified 

analogy

Requires focusing on the problems deep structure rather than just the superficial features

convergent thinking

Ability to spot ways in which seemingly distinct ideas might be interconnected

Divergent thinking

Ability to move one’s thoughts in novel, unanticipated directions

Functional fixedness

The tendency to be ridged in thinking about an objects function

Problem-solving sets

collection of beliefs and assumptions a person makes about a problem

Four components of Wallas’s creative process

Preparation, incubation, illumination, verification

Preparation

Gathering information

Incubation

Giving the conscious a break

Illumination

Insight emerges

Verification

confirmation that new ideas lead to a solution

General intelligence 

Individual variation in intelligence that caused people to perform better than others in total

Specific intelligence

Variation in individual subsets of intelligence

Crystalized knowledge

General knowledge reflected in vocabulary and facts about the world

Fluid intelligence

Content-independent analytical processes, being able to solve problems

Multiple intelligences theory 

Intelligence is best viewed as a collection of abilities that can be used to solve different problems (i.e. natural intelligence, musical intelligence, etc.)

Savant syndrome

Low intelligence in other fields but very high intelligence with one particular skill

Nature theory of intelligence

Intelligence is influenced by genetics

Nurture theory of intelligence

Intelligence is influenced by experience

Categorization

Grouping items or ideas together and distinguishing them from other items or ideas

Wittgeinstin’s idea of categories

Members of categories share a “family resemblance”

Defining features

There may be features that are shared by all category members

Characteristic features

Members of a category have shared features across the category

Prototype theory 

The category example that possesses all or most of the characteristic features

Typicality

How much a member of a category resembles the prototype

Graded membership

Objects close to a prototype are “better” members of the category than objects further than the prototype

Superordinate category

Broadest, most general category

basic-level category

Middle ground, usually default for naming objects

Subordinate category

Most specific category

Hierarchical network

Contains nodes, pieces of information, and links between nodes. Uses spreading activation

Amodal theories

Semantic knowledge is represented symbolically, distinct from the ways that we experience the world

Embodied cognition theories

Semantic knowledge is represented by sensory and motor systems

Organization of language (largest to smallest)

Sentence, word, morpheme, phoneme

Morpheme

smallest unit of language containing meaning

phoneme

smallest unit of sound that serves to distinguish meaning

Voicing

Whether vocal folds vibrate or not

Manner of production

How the airflow is restricted

Place of prediction

where the airflow is restricted

Speech segmentation 

Slicing of a continuous speech stream into appropriate segments

Coarticulation

Each phoneme is slightly altered depending on adjacent phonemes

Context

Cue for ambiguity resolution, people are able to fill in missing phonemes based on context cues

Visual input

Cue for ambiguity resolution, think of lip reading

Syntax

rules that govern the structure of a phrase or a sentence

Phrase-structure rule

Overall organization of a sentence

Parsing

The process of determining each words syntactic role in a sentence

Universal grammar

Set of universal principles that apply to all languages

language acquisition device

Hypothetical tool in the human brain that lets children learn and understand language quickly

Critical period

Time when children are most equipped to learn the rules of language 

Prosody

The patterns of pauses and pitch changes that characterize speech production

Linguistic relativity

Hypothesis that people who speak different languages think differently as a result

cognitive reflection test

Measures cognitive ability to override faster system one system and being able to use system two thinking

Prescriptive Rules

Rules describing how something is supposed to be

Descriptive rules

Rules characterizing something as it is ordinarily used by natives

anomia

A person loses the ability to be able to name certain objects 

Einstellung

Staying with a problem solving method when it is successful the first time

Base-rate neglect

ignoring statistical evidence

Belief perseverance

Despite having information to the contrary of a fact you still believe something