Phys/His Test 1

Histology

the study of tissues

Cytology

the study of cells

Microscopy

use of microscope

Histochemistry/Cytochemistry & example

the use of special chemicals to identify specific structures ex: Diff Quick stain

Immunohistochemistry/Immunocytochemistry

the use of antibodies to immunolabel specific structures

Clinical pathology versus Anatomic Pathology

clinical: study bodily fluids & cells

anatomic: study organs and tissues

H & E staining

Hematoxylin: stains nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) dark blue to purple (basophilic)

Eosin: stains proteins and cytoplasms with positive charge pink (eosinophilic)

Systems and organs

Integumentary

Musculoskeletal

Respiratory

Cardiovascular

Hemolymphatic

Alimentary (GI)

Urinary

Reproductive

Endocrine

Nervous

Special senses ( eye, ear)

Organ

made of two or more tissues

Tissues have

cells

extracellular matrix: variable amounts of fibers/ground substance

common function

How are repair potential and vascularity related

more blood supply (vascular) = better repair

basic tissue types

epithelium

connective tissue

muscle

nervous

Types of Epithelium tissue

lining: selective barrier, protects from outside, prevents fluid, electrolyte, & protein loss

glandular: produces secretory product, can be on outside (sweat), can be on inside (pancreatic juice)

Types of muscle tissue

skeletal, smooth, cardiac

Nervous tissue systems

Central Nervous system: brain & spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system: nerves

Properties of epithelial

protect, absorb, secrete

no ECM

cells similar to each other

avascular

cells close together

great repair potential because vascular connective tissue underneath it

Basement membrane functions

all epithelial cells sit on

seperates non connective tissue from connective tissue

rich in glycoproteins

1. bind epithelia to connective tissues

2. act as a selectively permeable membrane

Epithelial cell junctional complex

1. Tight junctions (zonula occludens) allow some exchange

2. Adhering junctions (zonula adherens) glue together

3. Spot junctions

   1. desmosomes: cell-cell

   2. Hemidesmosomes: cell-basement membrane

Lining epithelium layer names

simple: one layer of cells

stratified: several layers

pseudostratified: looks stratified but each cell anchored to basement membrane

Lining epithelium shape names

squamous: flat

cuboidal: box shaped

columnar

Lining epithelial special feature names

ciliated: cilia on surface

keratinized: layers of dead cells on surface

goblet: secretory cells

Name this epithelium & give example

simple squuamous epithelium

lungs, thin layer allows for gas exchange

Name this type of epithelium & give example

simple cuboidal epithelium

renal tubules in kidney, often secreting tissues

Name the epithelium and give example

simple columnar epithelium

GI tract, absorption

Name the epithelium & give example

psuedostratified columnar epithelium

upper respiratory tract

secret mucus, often ciliated

Name the epithelium & give example

stratified squamous epithelium

skin (thicker for protection)

oral cavity

vagina

name the epithelium & give example

transitional epithelium

urinary tract (ureters, urinary bladder, urethra)

good for stretching

How are epithelial cels classified

shape

number of layers

specialized features

What kind of special feature epithelium is this and where is it commonly located

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

paw pads

What are the two specialized kinds of simple squamous epithelium

Endothelium

Mesothelium

What kind of epithelium is this

Endothelium (special kind of simple squamous epithelium)

lines blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

What kind of epithelium is this

Mesothelium (special kind of simple squamous epithelium)

lines body cavities (pericardial, throacic, etc)

What is an exocrine gland and how does it secrete

epithelium maintains contact with surface

connects via a duct

secretory product empties onto surface; can be outside (skin) or inside (GI or respiratory tract)

Explain anatomy of exocrine gland

1. Acinus: secretory part

2. Excretory duct: carries the product out

honorable mention: myoepithelial cells on outside contract to move secretory product

How is the glandular epithelium named

number of cells

method of secretion

secretory product

What is the only unicellular exocrine glandular cell & where are they found

goblet cells

UR & GI tract

What are the methods of secretion for glandular epithelium

Exocytosis

A portion of the cell pinches off into the lumen

The whole cell sloughs off into the lumen

What are the glands called that secrete their product by exocytosis & give examples

Merocrine glands (merely secrete)

salivary glands

pancreatic glands

eccrine glands (paw pad sweat)

what are the glands called that secrete their product by pinching portions of the cell off into the lumen & give examples

Apocrine glands

mammary glands

anal glands

ear wax glands

what are the glands called that secrete their product by sloughing the whole cell off into the lumen & give examples

Holocrine glands

sebaceous glands (sebum)

Meibomian gland (eyelid)

Name the different secretory products of glandular epithelium

Serous (internal)

Mucous (internal)

Mixed (internal)

Sebum (external/skin)

What kind of secretory product is this & describe it & give ex

Serous

Clear, watery

Serously pink (eosinophilic)

Parotid salivary gland

What kind of secretory product is this & describe it & give ex

Mucous

thick & viscous

foamy, pale pink (less protein & more fat so less pink)

GI, respiratory, urogenital tracts

goblet cells are mucous

What kind of secretory product is this

Mixed

What kind of secretory product is this & describe & give ex

Sebum

Sebaceous glands

Holocrine secretion method

skin, eyelid

greasy due to lipid content

What is parenchyma

the functional units of an organ

What is stroma

the connective tissue that binds functional units together

What is the capsule

connective tissue that lines an organ

ex: mesothelium lines internal organ capsules

Homeostatic mechanisms do what

allow organisms to persist despite stressors from environment

What are the components of the total body water

25L intracellular fluid

15L extracellular fluid ( 10L interisital, 5L blood)

What separates the internal & external environment

plasma membrane (selectively permeable, bilayer)

Constituents inside the plasma membrane __

Cytoplasm

What is the plasma membrane made of

50% lipids

1. Phospholipid

2. Glycolipid

3. Cholesterol

50% proteins

1. Peripheral Protein

2. Intergral Protein

All lipids in the cell membrane are ___

Amphiphilic: both hydrophilic & hydrophobic

What is a fatty acid & what are the different kinds

fatty acid: carboxylic acid with long tail

unsaturated: one or more double bond

saturated: no double bonds

Glycerol has __

3 carbon & 3 hydroxyl

What is a phospholipid & what bonds hold it together

3 carbon glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate polar head

ester bonds

What is sphingomyelin & where is it found

built from sphingosine instead of glycerol

found in myelin sheath of nerve

What is a glycolipid & where is it found & example

sugar containing lipid

exclusively in extracellular side of lipid bilayer

Ex: Ganglioside GM 1 as cell surface receptor for cholera toxin, causes diarrhea

What is cholesterol

sterol with polar hydroxyl head and short non polar tail

High phospholipid conc in water forms ___

Micelles (spheres) to avoid water

Plasma membrane is considered a fluid mosaic, membrane fluidity depends on _& _

composition

temperature

Describe the different membrane states

At high temps the lipid membrane is in “sol state” or solution state

At low temps the lipid membrane is in “gel state”

Transition temperature: point at which a membrane switches from a gel state to sol state & vice versa

Describe how phospholipid structure affects composition

shorter chain length of fatty acid tails result in less interaction

double bonds create kinks in the hydrocarbon chain resulting in less packing

Can lipids flip in the membrane?

most of them no because require alot of energy

cholesterol can because they dont have two chains & have small head

What is cholesterols role

maintain membrane fluidity by restraining the movement of phospholipids

What are caveolae & purpose

small invaginations in plasma membrane

flattening allows plasma membrane to expand in stress responses

Describe peripheral membrane proteins

loosely attached

bound by noncovalent bonds

can be knocked off membrane by ionic effects (salting out)

Ex: cytochrome c

RBCs have what cytoskeletal components

Interlocking protein meshwork: subcortical cytoskeleton

spectrin: dimer

Give example of peripheral & integral proteins

Peripheral: ankyrin

integral” band 3

Describe integral proteins

covalently embedded in membrane

no salting out

detergents can dissociate

transmembrane

Functions of membrane proteins

transport

enzyme

signal transduction

cell to cell recognition

intercellular joining

attachment to cytoskeleton

What determines whether a substance can easily cross the lipid bilayer?

Small, uncharged molecules such as O₂, CO₂, and NH₃ (gases,steroid,hormones) cross more easily, while charged molecules, ions, and large uncharged molecules have difficulty crossing the hydrophobic membrane core. (charged do not readily cross)

Why do cells need transmembrane transport proteins?

To move water-soluble molecules and ions across the hydrophobic lipid bilayer.

What is osmolality, and what value is considered normal plasma osmolality?

Osmolality is the concentration of dissolved particles in a fluid, expressed as mOsm/kg. Normal plasma osmolality is approximately 290 mOsm.

Define isosmolal, hyperosmolal, and hypoosmolal.

Isosmolal = 290 mOsm; hyperosmolal = >290 mOsm; hypoosmolal = <290 mOsm

What are isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions?

isotonic has the same effective osmolality as the reference solution(0.9% NaCl); hypertonic has a higher effective osmolality(7.5% NaCl); hypotonic has a lower effective osmolality. (0.45% NaCl)

What can cause high or low osmolality?

High: dehydration, hyperglycemia, hypernatremia. Low: overhydration or hyponatremia.

What is osmosis?

Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from lower solute concentration/higher water concentration toward higher solute concentration/lower water concentration.

What drives water movement into and out of cells?

Osmotic gradients, or differences in osmolality across the membrane. Water moves toward where more molecules are to dilute.

How do different solutes move across membrane

-neutral solute moves toward lower concentration to create equilibrium

-electrically charged solute will move to balance charges & conc(electrical potential = 0)

What is the major difference between passive and active transport?

Passive transport moves substances down a concentration/electrochemical gradient, while active transport can move substances against a gradient (need ATP).

Compare simple and facilitated diffusion.

Simple diffusion occurs directly through the membrane, while facilitated diffusion requires transport proteins but still moves substances down their gradient(ex: glucose)

How do membrane transport proteins help polar molecules and ions cross membranes?

They provide an alternative hydrophilic pathway and lower the activation energy for transport

What are important features of GLUT-mediated glucose transport?

GLUT transport is passive and moves glucose down its concentration gradient. GLUT1 demonstrates saturability and stereospecificity, while GLUT4 transport into muscle is regulated by insulin.

What are aquaporins?

Hydrophilic transmembrane channels specialized for rapid, selective water transport.

ex: sweat. saliva, tears (exocrine glands)

Compare primary and secondary active transport.

Primary active transport uses ATP directly. Secondary active transport uses energy stored in an ion gradient.

What is the function of the Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase?

t pumps Na⁺ out and K⁺ into cells, helping maintain ion gradients and membrane potential.

explain uniport, symport, antiport transport systems

uniport: one molecule one direction

symport: two molecules same direction

antiport: two molecules opposite direction

Why is the Na⁺ gradient important beyond maintaining ion concentrations?

It provides stored potential energy that can drive secondary active transport

What characterizes P-type ATPases?

They are cation transporters that are reversibly phosphorylated by ATP, causing conformational changes that move ions across membranes.

Example of active transport

Na/K ATPase pump

What are examples of important P-type ATPases?

Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase, Parietal cells H⁺/K⁺ ATPase (acidic stomach)

SERCA and plasma membrane Ca²⁺ ATPase (keeps calcium conc down in endoplasmic reticulum)

What is the main function of V-type ATPases?

Acidification of intracellular compartments such as lysosomes, endosomes, and secretory vesicles

pH 3-6

resting membrane potential is

-50 to -70

Sodium-Potassium pump moves what molecules in and out

spit out 3 sodium, bring in 2 potassium (inside negative, outside positive)

F type ATPases are found where

present in mitochondria

example of secondary active transport

Glucose-Na+ symport

What are the two components of an electrochemical gradient?

The concentration gradient and the membrane potential.

What contributes importantly to the resting membrane potential?

The K⁺ concentration gradient, K⁺ leak channels, ion channels, and pumps such as the Na⁺-K⁺ ATPase.