N405 - Date-Collection Methods (Ch 14)

Objective Collection Method

free from researchers' personal biases, beliefs, values or attitudes

Systematic Collection Method

collected in a uniform, consistent or standard way

Operational (measuring variables of interest)

concepts must be clearly defined -- translated into a measurable variable for data collection, how will the researcher measure variables

Instrument Fidelity (measuring variables of interest)

maintain consistency and quality of the data-collection methods used

Measurement Error

difference between what really exists and what is measured in a study

every study has some amount of measurement error

Random Error

occurs when scores vary in a random way

Systematic Error

occurs when scores are incorrect but in the same direction

What are the four methods of data-collection?

(1) observation

(2) self-report

(3) physiological data

(4) existing data

Observational Methods

scientific methods used for collecting data on how people behave under certain conditions

(1) unstructured observation

(2) structured observation

Unstructured Observation

known as “participant observation”

(1) collecting descriptive information

(2) researcher functions as a part of a social group to study the group in question

(3) uses field notes to record the activities, as well as the observer’s

interpretations.

(4) reactivity (Hawthorne effect); created when the subjects change behavior because they know they are being observed

Structured Observation

(1) specify in advance what behaviors or events are to be observed

(2) standardized forms are used for record-keeping and include categorization systems, checklists, or rating scales.

(3) rely heavily on the formal training and standardization of the researcher observers

Concealment (structured observational methods)

(1) subjects do not know they are being observed (e.g., one-way mirror)

(2) method is used if there is concern that a subject’s behavior will change as a result of being observed (i.e., reactivity).

Intervention (structured observational methods)

the observer provokes actions from those who are being observed

Self-Report Methods

use interviews or structured questionnaires to collect information about experiences, behaviors, feelings, or attitudes

common in nursing research and most useful for collecting data on variables that cannot be directly observed or measured, such as:

quality of life, satisfaction with nursing care, social support, uncertainty, and functional status

Social Desirability (considerations with self-report methods)

there is no way to tell whether the respondent is telling the truth or responding in a socially desirable way

people are known to respond to questions in a way that makes a favorable impression

Respondent Burden (considerations with self-report methods)

(1) if the questionnaire length or interview is too long or questions are too difficult to answer in a reasonable amount of time

(2) consider age, health condition, or mental status or participants

(3) may result in incomplete or erroneous answers or missing data

Open-Ended Questions (interviews)

(1) used to obtain responses in the participants’ own words or when the researcher does not know all possible alternative responses

(2) often use a list of questions and probes, called an “interview guide”

(3) require content analysis to interpret the data

ex: please share the three most important reasons why you chose to stay in your current job:

1. _____________________

2. _____________________

3. _____________________

Closed-Ended Questions (interviews)

(1) structured response items that use a fixed number of alternative responses

(2) interviewer record a subject’s responses directly on a form

(3) simplifies the respondent’s task and the researcher’s analysis

(4) may miss some important information

ex: on average, how many patients do you care for in one day?

1. 1 to 3

2. 4 to 6

3. 7 to 9

4. More than 9

Questionnaires

paper and pencil (or digital) instruments

may be open-ended or closed-ended

referred to as “instruments,” “surveys,” “scales,” or “tools”

most useful when there is a finite set of questions

Considerations When Using Questionnaires

(1) reading level (eighth grade)

(2) questionnaire font size (14-point font)

(3) need to read and assist some subjects

(4) time to complete the questionnaire

Demographic Questionnaires

self-reported characteristics about the subjects

examples: age, gender, race, ethnicity, education, marital status

researcher describes and compares different study participants so readers can evaluate how similar the sample is to patients they care for in their community

Comparison of Questionnaire vs. Interviews

questionnaire:

(1) questions cannot be clarified

(2) more superficial because interviewer is unable to probe

(3) no interview bias

(4) can be anon.

interviews:

(1) questions can be answered

(2) depth in data

(3) interview bias = threat

(4) anon. is not possible

Physiological Measurement

requires the use of specialized equipment to determine the physical and biological status of subjects

physical: e.g., weight or temperature

chemical: e.g., blood glucose level

microbiological: e.g., cultures

anatomical: e.g., radiological examinations

Physiological Measurement (advantages/disadvantages)

advantages:

(1) objective, precise, sensitive

(2) unlikely that subject can deliberately distort

disadvantages:

(1) instruments may be expensive or difficult to use

(2) instrument use often requires specialized knowledge and training

(3) results may be affected by the environment

Existing Data

uses records and databases

(1) medical records, care plans, hospital records, death certificates

(2) U.S. Census, National Cancer Data Base

often referred to as “secondary analysis”

What is the advantage of existing data?

data are already collected, thus eliminating subject burden and recruitment problems

Construction Of A New Data Collection Instrument

complex and time-consuming process

did they establish reliability and validity?