in context - using secondary sources to investigate education

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

• Education is one of the k___ s____ provided by the state and as therefore is c____ m____.

• As a result, schools, colleges, local authorities and the Department for Education collect a wide range of official statistics on education.

These cover many issues that sociologists are interested in, including what

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

• Education is one of the key services provided by the state and as therefore is closely monitored.

• As a result, schools, colleges, local authorities and the Department for Education collect a wide range of official statistics on education.

These cover many issues that sociologists are interested in, including:

• Ethnicity, class, gender and educational achievement

• School attendance, truancy and inclusion

• League tables, marketisation and school performance

• Gender and subject choice

• Education, work and training.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

✓practical advantages of using official statistics to investigate education

• ✓- Much of this data is p____ and thus available to the sociologist, saving them both t____ and m____. For example, the government collects statistics on over how many primary and how many secondary schools. In practice, it would be too c____ and t___-c___ for a sociologist to gather information on so many schools t___.

• ✓- Educational statistics allow sociologists to make c___ between the achievements of different s____ groups based on what 3 things

• because educational statistics are collected at r____ and f____ intervals, sociologists can make c____ over t___. For example, a____ g____ e____ statistics enable the sociologist to see t___ in results.

• Governments gather statistics to m___ the effectiveness of their e____ policies, such as those dealing with the c____, s___ c___, raising standards and reducing i___ of achievement.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

✓practical advantages of using official statistics to investigate education

• ✓- Much of this data is published and thus available to the sociologist, saving them both time and money. For example, the government collects statistics on over 30,000 primary and 4,000 secondary schools. In practice, it would be too costly and time-consuming for a sociologist to gather information on so many schools themselves.

• ✓- Educational statistics allow sociologists to make comparisons between the achievements of different social groups based on ethnicity, gender and social class.

• because educational statistics are collected at regular and frequent intervals, sociologists can make comparisons over time. For example, annually gathered exam statistics enable the sociologist to see trends in results.

• Governments gather statistics to monitor the effectiveness of their educational policies, such as those dealing with the curriculum, subject choice, raising standards and reducing inequality of achievement.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

✘- practical disadvantages of using official statistics to investigate education

• ✘ However, governments collect statistics for their own p____ p___ and these may not be the s___ as those of sociologists. For example, sociologists may be interested in what , but there are no official statistics available on this.

• ✘- where the state collects educational statistics the d___ of k___ c____ may differ from those that sociologists use. For example, official definitions of pupils' social class are based on what, whereas Marxist sociologists define class in terms of what

• ✘because official statistics are s____ data, they cannot tell the sociologist about the i____ p____ in school that may lead to this under-claiming.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

✘- practical disadvantages of using official statistics to investigate education

• ✘ However, governments collect statistics for their own policy purposes and these may not be the same as those of sociologists. For example, sociologists may be interested in the relationship between language, social class and achievement, but there are no official statistics available on this.

• ✘- where the state collects educational statistics the definitions of key concepts may differ from those that sociologists use. For example, official definitions of pupils' social class are based on parental occupation, whereas Marxist sociologists define class in terms of property ownership.

• ✘because official statistics are secondary data, they cannot tell the sociologist about the interaction processes in school that may lead to this under-claiming.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

representativeness

• Some official statistics on education are highly representative.

• For example, all state schools have to complete a what t___ times a year. This collects information on pupils' a____, e_____ and g____, the numbers receiving f___ s___ m___ and so on.

• Because these statistics cover v___5 every pupil in the country, they are highly representative.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

representativeness

• Some official statistics on education are highly representative.

• For example, all state schools have to complete a school census three times a year. This collects information on pupils' attendance, ethnicity and gender, the numbers receiving free school meals and so on.

• Because these statistics cover virtually every pupil in the country, they are highly representative.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

reliability

• which type of sociologists favour official statistics because their reliability means that they can be used to test and re-test h____ and thus discover c____-and-e___ relationships.

• For example, statistics on exam results showing social class differences in educational achievement may correlate with statistics on what

• From this, p____ may be able to conclude that p___5 causes u___-a____.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

reliability

• Positivists favour official statistics because their reliability means that they can be used to test and re-test hypotheses and thus discover cause-and-effect relationships.

• For example, statistics on exam results showing social class differences in educational achievement may correlate with statistics on parental income.

• From this, positivists may be able to conclude that poverty causes under-achievement.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

reliability

• Although it is possible for errors to creep into the production of official statistics on education, they are generally very reliable.

• This is because the government imposes what for their collection, which all schools m___ use.

• This enables the process to be r___ from year to year, allowing direct c___ to be made, for example of school performance over time.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

reliability

• Although it is possible for errors to creep into the production of official statistics on education, they are generally very reliable.

• This is because the government imposes standard definitions and categories for their collection, which all schools must use.

• This enables the process to be replicated from year to year, allowing direct comparisons to be made, for example of school performance over time.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

reliability

• what is an example of the governments may changimg the definitions and categories. ( league tables, CVA, deprivation)

reliability

• However, governments may change the definitions and categories.

• For example, when the Conservatives first introduced league tables of school performance in 1988, a school's position was based purely on its exam results. This generally meant that schools with middle-class pupils were placed higher than those with working-class intakes.

• However, in 2006, the Labour government introduced a new measure of school performance called Contextual Value Added (CVA). This took into account not just exam results, but also the level of deprivation pupils suffer.

• In many cases, CVA 'turns the tables' and results in schools with disadvantaged pupils being placed higher than those with middle-class intakes. Changing the definitions on which educational statistics are based makes it difficult for sociologists to draw comparisons over time.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

validity

• Interpretivists question the validity of educational statistics.

• They argue that such statistics are s____ c____. For example, they see truancy statistics as the outcome of awhat

• how might schools manipulate their attendance figures. Why would they want to do so?

• However, this d____ d___of attendance figures undermines the c___ of educational statistics.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

validity

• Interpretivists question the validity of educational statistics.

• They argue that such statistics are socially constructed. For example, they see truancy statistics as the outcome of a series of definitions and decisions made by a variety of social actors, such as parents, teachers and pupils.

• Schools may manipulate their attendance figures by re-defining poor attenders as being on study leave or additional work experience. They may be tempted to do so because, in an education market, there is pressure on schools to present themselves in the best possible light in order to maintain their funding and parental support.

• However, this deliberate distorting of attendance figures undermines the validity of educational statistics.

DOCUMENTS

• Schools, local authorities and the Department for Education generate a wide range of public documents.

• how do researchers get the opportunity to use personal educational documents in schools

  Documents cover many educational issues that sociologists are interested in such as what ?

DOCUMENTS

• Schools, local authorities and the Department for Education generate a wide range of public documents.

• Also, because pupils produce large amounts of paper-based work, there is the opportunity for the researcher to use personal educational documents.

  Documents cover many educational issues that sociologists are interested in, including:

  • Ethnic, class and gender differences in achievement

  • The curriculum

  • Gender stereotyping in school books

  • Racist incidents in schools

  • Special educational needs.

DOCUMENTS

✓practical advantages and ✘disadvantages of using documents to investigate education

✓Public documents on education are often e___ a___.

• Partly because of g___ p___ emphasising p____ c___, schools make a large amount of information available to the public, which researchers may then use.

• For example, D___ G___ (1995), in his study of r____ and s___, was able to access a wide range of school documents, including what type of things

• These documents gave Gillborn the 'o___' picture of what was happening in terms of r___ in the schools he studied.

• Gillborn then compared this with the data he collected from i____ and o___.

  ✘- Personal documents can be more difficult to access.

• V___ H___ (1997) made use of what type of personal documents

• However what was the problems with them?

  Some educational documents are confidential, such as what ; so sociologists may be unable to gain access to them.

DOCUMENTS

✓practical advantages and ✘disadvantages of using documents to investigate education

✓Public documents on education are often easily accessible.

• Partly because of government policies emphasising parental choice( parents need info to choose schools) , schools make a large amount of information available to the public, which researchers may then use.

• For example, David Gillborn (1995), in his study of racism and schooling, was able to access a wide range of school documents, including school policy statements, local authority guidelines on anti-racism and the minutes of staff meetings and working parties.

• These documents gave Gillborn the 'official' picture of what was happening in terms of racism in the schools he studied.

• Gillborn then compared this with the data he collected from interviews and observation.

  ✘- Personal documents can be more difficult to access.

• Valerie Hey (1997) made use of the notes girls passed to each other in class to understand their friendship patterns.

• However, the notes were not always easy to obtain, as the girls were experts at hiding them from teachers.

  Some educational documents are confidential, such as teachers' personnel files and pupils' disciplinary records; so sociologists may be unable to gain access to them.

DOCUMENTS

✘ethical issues of using documents to investigate education

• There are few ethical concerns with using public documents produced by schools.

• However, there are more ethical problems with personal documents.

• For example, what happened with the notes that girls had passed to each other in class Hey collected

DOCUMENTS

✘ethical issues of using documents to investigate education

• There are few ethical concerns with using public documents produced by schools.

• However, there are more ethical problems with personal documents.

• For example, Hey collected in the notes that girls had passed to each other in class.

• In some cases, the girls offered her the notes freely, but in others Hey collected them from desks at the end of the lesson and, in one case, a teacher took them from the wastepaper bin and offered them to her.

• Thus in some cases, informed consent for their use had not been obtained.

DOCUMENTS

representativeness

• Some official documents are l____ required of all schools and colleges, such as r____ of r___ i___. This makes it more likely that we can form a r____ picture of racism in schools across the whole country.

• However, of course, not all r___ i____ may be documented.

• which type of documents are often less representative. For example, Hey collected about 70 notes, but what made these unrepresentative?

DOCUMENTS

representativeness

• Some official documents are legally required of all schools and colleges, such as records of racist incidents. This makes it more likely that we can form a representative picture of racism in schools across the whole country.

• However, of course, not all racist incidents may be documented.

• Personal documents are often less representative. For example, Hey collected about 70 notes, but the unsystematic way in which she came by them makes it likely that her sample was unrepresentative.

DOCUMENTS

reliability

• Many public documents, for example a____ r____, are produced in a systematic format. This enables researchers to make d____ c____ of the a___ rates of pupils in different schools.

• However, deliberate f_____ or a____ m____ made when filling in registers reduce their reliability because teachers are not applying the measure of attendance consistently

reliability

• Many public documents, for example attendance registers, are produced in a systematic format. This enables researchers to make direct comparisons of the absence rates of pupils in different schools.

• However, deliberate falsifications or accidental mistakes made when filling in registers reduce their reliability because teachers are not applying the measure of attendance consistently

DOCUMENTS

validity

• Documents can provide important insights into the m____ held by teachers and pupils and can therefore be high in validity, For example, Hey initially e____ girls f____ in schools through observation and interviews.

• Eventually, however, she realised that she was ignoring a useful source of insight into girls' feelings and actions - the notes they passed to each other in class.

• Although teachers considered these notes to be 'bits of silliness', Hey found that they offered v___ i___ into the nature of girls' friendships. - why is this ?

• However, all documents are open to different i___55- For example, we cannot be sure that Hey's i____ of the meaning of the notes was the same as that of the g____

• Also, because the girls sometimes handed Hey the notes after the class, it is possible that they were written with her in mind and may not have been s____.

DOCUMENTS

validity

• Documents can provide important insights into the meanings held by teachers and pupils and can therefore be high in validity, For example, Hey initially examined girls friendships in schools through observation and interviews.

• Eventually, however, she realised that she was ignoring a useful source of insight into girls' feelings and actions - the notes they passed to each other in class.

• Although teachers considered these notes to be 'bits of silliness', Hey found that they offered valuable insights into the nature of girls' friendships. This is because they were spontaneous expressions of the girls' feelings and attitudes.

• However, all documents are open to different interpretations- For example, we cannot be sure that Hey's interpretation of the meaning of the notes was the same as that of the girls.

• Also, because the girls sometimes handed Hey the notes after the class, it is possible that they were written with her in mind and may not have been spontaneous.