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the 4 types of population used to collect data
Target population, source population, sample population, study population
target population
broadest group
the general population that the study seeks to understand
Source population
specific individuals from the target population from which a sample will be drawn
sample population
the Individuals selected to participate from the source population
If the source population is small, all might be asked to participate
study population
The eligible members from the sample that consent to participation
sampling bias
occurs when individuals selected for the study do not represent the source population as a whole
nonrandom-sampling bias
occurs when each individual in the source population does not have an equal chance of being selected for the sample population
probability based sampling
Methods for ensuring that members of a source population have an equal likelihood of being invited to participate in a research study different types:
simple random sampling
systematic sampling
stratified sampling
cluster sampling
Simple random sampling
Completely random selection from a population
eg. 12 out of 36 people selected
Systematic sampling
Every nth person, usually with a random start
Stratified sampling
Random sampling from distinct groups (stratum), eg. 3 people from each sex or geographic location
Cluster sampling
Natural clusters, rather than individuals selected eg. eligible children within each school
Multistage sampling
1st primary sample units are selected eg. 10 clusters in a municipality, then from there every nth person is selected
Non-probability based sampling
Convenience sampling Purposive sampling
Berkson's bias
can occur when cases and controls for a study are recruited from hospitals and therefore are more likely than the general population to have comorbid conditions
Healthy Worker Bias
workers, on average, are healthier than the general population (Occupational populations)
Exclusion Bias
applying different eligibility criteria to cases and controls
Selection Bias
occurs when the members of a study population are not representative of which they are drawn
nonresponse bias
bias introduced when a large fraction of those sampled fails to respond
Nested case-control study
cases and controls are drawn from the population in a cohort study
eligibility criteria
The characteristics that define the population
key informants
individuals selected to participate in a qualitative study because they have expertise relevant to the study question
purposive sampling
selecting sample members to study because they possess attributes important to understanding the research topic
data saturation
sampling until no new information emerges
vulnerable populations
Groups of people with diminished autonomy who cannot participate fully in the consent process. Such groups may include children, individuals with cognitive disorders, prisoners, and marginalized populations.
confidence interval (CI)
Given a sample from a population, the CI indicates a range in which the population mean is believed to be found. Usually expressed as a 95% CI, indicating the lower and upper boundaries.
narrow CI = more certainty about the value of a statistic
if all people n the total population are included, no CI is needed
sample size calculator
a statistical program used to provide a recommended sample size - can find online
type 1 error (alpha)
False Positive
a significant result when no significant result exists
most studies use alpha = 5%
Type 2 error (beta)
False Negative
no significant result, when it actually does exist
usually referred to as the power of the study solution = bigger sample size
Power
The ability of a test to detect significant differences in a population when they actually exist.
power = 1 - Beta
Questionares
A series of questions used as a tool for gathering data
Likert Scale
a question that asks participants to rank preferences numerically, such as 1 for strong disagreement and 5 for strong agreement
habituation
error that occurs when participants completing a questionnare become so accustomed to a response, they continue without giving their true perspective
Filter or contingency questions
a question you ask the respondents to determine whether they are qualified or experienced enough to answer a subsequent one
online a skip logic can be used to hide irrelevant questions
internal consistency
items in a survey measure various aspects of the same concept
Cronbach's alpha
the measure of internal consistency
KR - 20
Inter-observer agreement/ inter-rater agreement
The degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events
content validity/ logical validity
researchers agree that the content is valid
Face validity
researchers agree content is easy for study participants to understand and complete
construct validity
measures the theoretical construct of an assessment
can be an empirical test
convergent validity
is present when two items that the underlying theory says are related, are in fact related
the opposite = discriminant validity
Criterion or concrete validity
uses an established test to validate your own test with a similar theoretical construct
concurrent validity
participants in a pilot study complete both tests and a strong correlation between both tests is evident
Predictive validity
could be demonstrated by administering a test to incoming med students and comparing their results on the new test with those from their initial licensing exam