Brock PSYC 1F90 Exam 1 Review

experiential processing

Thought that is passive, effortless, and automatic (not useful when trying to retain memories)

reflective processing

thought that is active, effortful, and controlled (used when experiential processing is not enough)

Critical Thinking

The ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information

What does the reflective SQ4R method stand for?

S: Survey (skim material and understand big picture)
Q: Question (reword headings into questions that help u read w/ purpose)
R: Read (Read, and find answers to the questions)
R: Recite (rehearse; mentally answer questions)
R: Reflect (Can be done using self-reference/critical thinking)
R: Review (reread material/notes and check memory by quizzing yourself)
Q and 3R's should be repeated over time

Reflective Listener

person who maintains attention, avoid distractions, and actively gathers info from lectures

What's a good listening/note-taking plan?

L: Lead. Don't Follow (Look over readings + slides before class; form reflective questions)
I: Ideas (Find out the main idea of lecture)
S: Signal Words (Listen for words that tell you what direction the instructor is taking. ex. There are 3 reasons...here comes reasons)
A: Actively Listen (stay active, alert, engaged)
N: Note Taking (write down only key points)

Psychology

The scientific study of overt and covert behaviour

Research Method

A systematic approach to answering questions (common sense answers can go unchallenged due to lack of research method)

What first 2 steps do psychologists take to reach their goals and answer unknown questions?

1. Description of behaviour; based on making detailed record of observations; also called naming or classifying
2. Next is understanding; achieved when causes of behaviour can be stated (the why)

critical thinking

a type of reflection that involves asking whether a set of beliefs can be supported by scientific explanation and observation

What do critical thinkers do?

1. willing to challenge conventional wisdom by asking hard questions
2. willing to actively reflect on ideas
3. question assumptions and and look for alternative conclusions

pseudo-psychology

any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behaviour; give the appearence of being scientific but is not

confirmation bias

the tendency to remember or notice information thats fits ones expectation, while forgetting discrepancies (creating an illusion of accuracy)

scientific method

a form of critical thinking based on careful measurement and controlled observation

In its ideal form, what are the 6 elements of the scientific method?

1. making observations
2. defining a problem
3. proposing a hypothesis
4. gathering evidence/testing hypothesis
5. building theory
6. publishing results

hypothesis

the predicated outcome of an experiment of an educated guess about the relationship between variables

Operational Definition

defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it (ex. hunger can be defined based on the number of hours of food deprivation)

theory

a system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations

survey

a public polling technique used to answer questions

representative sample

a small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population (good ones should have equal % of men, women, young, old, etc.)

What are the limitations of a survey?

1. Could be representing a biased sample; does not accurately represent pop.
2. people may show courtesy bias (a tendency to give polite/socially desirable answers); like when answering questions about sex, drugs, income

observational data

data that comes from watching participants and recording their behaviour (only provide descriptions of behaviour)

What are the two types of observational data?

1. Naturalistic Observation
2. Structured Observation

naturalistic observation

observing behaviour as it unfolds in natural settings, without interference from researcher

structured observation

observing behaviour in situations that have been set up by the researcher

observer effect

changes in an organisms behaviour caused by awareness of being observed (so observers must keep distance and avoid interacting)

observer bias

the tendency of an observer to see what they expect or to record only selected details; distorts behaviour to match expectations

physiological data

data that comes from participants physiological processes (like measures of brain/heart, muscles, and production of hormones)

stimulus

any physical energy that affects a person and envokes a response

introspection

to look within; to examine ones own thoughts, feelings, or sensations

structuralism

analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements, or building blocks (Ex. stating the experience of holding an apple)

What was wrong with structuralism?

using introspection was a poor way to answers questions bc the structuralists frequently disagreed on observations (ex. Your introspected perceptions on an apply will be different to someone else)

functionalism

how behaviour and mental abilities help people adapt to their environments; not lifeless building blocks

natural selection

Darwin's theory that evolution favours those plants & animals best suited to their living conditions; deduced that creatures evolve in ways that favour survival (functionalism)

behaviourism

emphasizes the study of overt, observable behaviour

response

any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable aspect of behaviour

Radical Behaviourism

beleif that people and animals can be controlled completely using conditioning

Who is B. F. Skinner

behaviourist who created the Skinner box to condition animals using stimuli; beleived our actions are controlled by rewards and punishments

cognitive behaviourism

an approach that combines behavioural principles with cognition (thinking) to explain behaviour

Gestalt psychology

emphasizes the study of thinking, learning, perception in whole units, not parts (similar to how the melody of a flute can't be understood if it was sectioned off into parts)

unconscious

contents of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially impulses and desires not directly known to a person

psychoanalysis

approach created by Sigmund Freud; his approach to psychotherapy that emphasizes exploring unconscious conflicts

psychodynamic theory

any theory of behaviour that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces (influenced by Freud)

humanism

an approach to psychology that focuses on human experience, problems, potentials, and ideals; subjective experience

How is humanism different from prior approaches to behaviour?

beleived more in free will, then determinism;

determinism

the idea that all behaviour has prior causes that would completely explain ones choices and actions; that behaviour is determined by forces beyond our control (supported by behaviourists)

free will

the idea that human beings are capable of freely making choices or decisions (supported by humanists)

Self-Image

Your perception of your own body, personality, and capabilities

Self-Evaluation

appraising yourself as good or bad

self-actualization

the ongoing process of fully developing one's personal potential and becoming the best person ever

biological perspective

the attempt to explain behaviour in terms of underlying biological principles like brain processes, evolution, and genetics

neuroscience

the broader field of bio psychologists and others who study the brain and nervous system

revolutionary psychology

the study of how human evolution and genetics might explain our current behaviour

psychological perspective

the traditional view that behaviour is shaped by psychological processes occurring at the level of the individual

sociocultural perspective

the focus on importance of social and cultural contexts in influencing the behaviour of individuals

social norms

rules that define acceptable and expected behaviour for members of a group

cultural relativity

the idea that behaviour must be judges relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs

psychologist

a person highly trained in the methods, factual knowledge, and theories of psychology

experiment

a formal trial undertaken to confirm or disconfirm a hypothesis about cause and effect of behaviour

experimental subjects

animals/people whose behaviour is being investigated

participants

humans whose behaviour is investigated during an experiment

variable

any condition that changes or can be made to change; a measure, event, or state

What are the 3 types of variables?

1. independent variable
2. Dependent Variable
3. Extraneous Variable

independent variable

the condition being investigated as a possible cause of some change in behaviour; this is the condition altered by experimentor (ex. cell phone use)

dependent variable

dependent variables reveal the effects that independent variables have on behaviour (ex. driving ability: this is affected by cell phone use and determined by test scores)

experimental group

the group of subjects exposed to the independent variable or experimental condition (this group would use cell phones

control group

the group of subjects exposed to all experimental conditions or variables except the independent variable (this group would not use cell phones)

Why are experimental and control groups important?

If a statement was made without using these groups, the results would merely just be a conincidence (ex. saying vitamin C pills prevented your colds all year could have been a coincidence)

Random Assignment

the use of chance (ex. flipping a coin) to assign subjects to experimental and control groups

Why is random assignment important?

used to eliminate confounding/extraneous variables;
all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study

Statistically Significant

experimental results that would rarely occur by chance alone

research participant bias

changes in the behaviour of research participants caused by the influence of their own expectations

placebo effect

changes in behaviour due to participants expectations that a drug will have some effect

placebo

an inactive substance given in the place of a drug by experimenter; if the placebo has an effect than it might be based on suggestion rather than chemistry

How can research particpant bias be avoided

By using a single-blind experiment

single-blind experiment

an arrangement in which participants remain unaware of whether they are in the experimental group or control group

researcher bias

changes in participants behaviour caused by unintended influence of a researcher's actions; experimenters risk finding what they expect to find bc humans are sensitive about hints about what is expected of them

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

a prediction that prompts people to act in ways that make the prediction come true (ex. teachers underestimating the abilities of some students causing their performance to decrease)

double-blind experiment

an arrangement in which both participants and experimenters are unaware of whether participants are in the experimental group or control group (research assistance who dont know about the experiment are hired to collect data)

What are the 2 types of non-experimental studies?

1. Quasi-Experimental Studies
2. Correlational Studies

quasi-experiment study

a non experimental study in which researchers wish to compare groups of people, but can't randomly assign them to groups

What are the reasons for conducting a quasi-experiment study?

This is done when random assignment is not possible or when its unethical (ex. when the independent variables are sex, age, or when its earthquake survivors vs non-earthquake survivors)

correlational study

a non-experiemental study designed to measure the degree of relationship between two or more events, measures, or variables

Possible purpose of a correlational study?

For ex. to find association btw IQ of parents, and children, btw beauty and popularity, anxiety and performance

correlation

the existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables

coefficient correlation

The strength and degree of a relationship is expressed as a coefficient of correlation (0 = no correlation, +1 = perfect positive relationship exists, - 1 = perfect negative relationship exists)

Positive and Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation - high scores in one measure is matched w/ high scores in another measure (ex. high grades in hs could mean high scores in uni)
Negative Correlation - high scores in one measure associated with low scores in another (ex. high # of hours playing video games, and low grades)

Does correlation demonstrate causation?

No. Correlational studies help us discover relationships and make predictions, but does not demonstrate the cause of something (ex. people who play more video games may get lower grades bc they are disinterested in school and so they have more time to play video games - the cause does not have to be playing a lot of video games)

Causation

the act of causing an effect

Case Study

An in-depth focus on all aspects of a single person.

Why/When are case studies used?

Case studies are used to study rare events, like unusual mental disorders, childhood geniuses, or school shootings; it would be impractical, unethical, or impossible to study these types of events

neuron

an individual nerve cell

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord (brain communicates with body through bundle of nerves called spinal cord)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

all parts of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord (network of nerves that carries info between CNS and rest of body)

spinal nerves

major nerves that carry sensory and motor messages in and out of the spinal cord (31 pairs)

cranial nerves

major nerves that leave the brain without passing though the spinal cord (communicate directly with body)

nerve

a large bundle of many neuron axons/fibres

What's the difference btw neurons and nerves?

Neurons are smaller than nerves and neurons conduct nerve impulses while nerves transmit information to different parts

What are the 2 major parts that the PNS is divided into?

1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

somatic nervous system (SNS)

carries messages to and from the sensory organs and skeletal muscles (controls voluntary behaviour)