thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
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empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
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structuralism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
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introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes.
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functionalism
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
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behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
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humanistic psychology
humanistic psychology a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
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cognitive psychology
cognitive psychology the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.
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cognitive neuroscience
cognitive neuroscience the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
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psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes.
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nature-nurture issue
the controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
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natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will
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evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
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behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
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culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
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positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
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biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.
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behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
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biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
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psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
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social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
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testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
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SQ3R
study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, and Review.
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psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
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basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
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developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
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educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
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personality psychology
the study of individuals' characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.
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social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
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applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
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industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
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human factors psychology
a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
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counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.
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clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
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psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
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community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
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hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (i knew it all along)
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theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
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hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
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operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.
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replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
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case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
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naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
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survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
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sampling bias
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
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random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
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correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
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correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00).
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variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.
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scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.
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illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
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regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
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experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).
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experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
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control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
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random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
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double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
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placebo
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
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independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
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confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.
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dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
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validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
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informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
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debriefing
**the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.**
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descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
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histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.
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mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
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mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
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median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
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skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
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range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
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standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
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normal curve
(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data
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inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.
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statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
Studied by 16 people
