The living world - Cold Environments

Fragile environment

Fragile environment

– An environment that is both easily disturbed and difficult to restore if disturbed.

Infrastructure

– The basic equipment and structures needed for a country or region to function properly e.g. roads, water supply, utilities and sewage.

Permafrost

Permanently frozen ground, found in polar and tundra regions.

Polar

The regions of Earth surrounding the North and South Poles. They are dominated by ice caps, the northern resting on the Arctic Ocean and the southern on the continent of Antarctica.

Tundra

The flat, treeless Arctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America, where the ground is permanently frozen. Lichen, moss, grasses and dwarf shrubs can grow here.

Wilderness area

– A natural environment that has not been significantly modified by human activity.

Cold environments

cover ¼ of the Earth’s land surface.  These are high latitude regions where cold, sinking air generates freezing winds and sunlight is low or absent for a period of the year.

polar areas soils

are very poorly formed due to permanent coverage by ice, erosion due to glaciers and lack of biological activity.

tundra areas soils

tend to be continuously or seasonally frozen.  In summer a feature called an ‘active layer’ forms where the surface part (top few cms) of the soil melts allowing liquid water to pool and encourage vegetation growth.  This makes land surfaces boggy as underneath the soil is impermeable as it is still frozen.

Organic matter in tundra soils

tends to stay preserved due to the lack of decomposition and the frozen nature of the material.  lock up considerable amounts of carbon and methane.

Snowshoe Hare:

-Has large,furry feet that acts as snowshoes for travelling on top of the snow. During winter, snowshoes are white which helps them blend with the snow.During Spring and summer, snowshoe hares turn a reddish brown to help them blend with dirt and rocks.Hind legs of a snowshoe hare are large and have more fur than other rabbits or hares - these provide more surface area(more heat to trap) and support for walk on snow.

Artic Willow:

It grows low to the ground to avoid strong, cold winds. Small, leathery leaves are connected in tiny hairs that help trap heat and reduce water loss. Deep root system absorb as much water as possible during the short growing season.

Factors that tundra plants adapt to: Permafrost

only plants with shallow roots systems can survive, e.g lichens, mosses.

Factors that tundra plants adapt to: Poor drainage

Tolerate both extremely dry and wet conditions, allows them to cope with seasonal change.

Factors that tundra plants adapt to: Low Insulation

Adapted in ways that maxmise photosynthesis during the short growing season. For example, most tundra shrubs are perennials therefore, photosynthesis can begin immediately because plants don’t need to regrow their leaves.

Factors that tundra plants adapt to: Strong Wind

Plants have adapted in ways that keep them warm and minimises transpiration loss to the wind. They grow close together and near ground level. The seeds of some plants have woolly covers.

Opportunities and Challenges of Alaska: Location and History

Covers nearly two million kilometres squared. Alaska borders Canada and the Arctic Ocean. Alaska’s indigenous people include the Inupiat and Yupik tribes. These natives Americans are part of an even larger ethnic group called Inuit.Alaska is also home to economic migrants travelling north temporarily to work for oil and mining companies.

Opportunities of Alaska: Fishing Industry - Commercial

3,000 rivers, 3 million lakes and about 11,000km of Alaskan coastline

Provides 78,500 jobs and 1 in 10 alaskans are employed. Commercial fishing adds US $6 billion to the state economy. Some jobs are only seasonal and fish such as Salmon, crab and whitefish are farmed.

Opportunities of Alaska: Fishing Industry - Subsistence

Native American communities remain dependent on fish for several uses. Fish provide food, oil(for fuel), and bones(used to help make clothing and tools).

Opportunities of Alaska: Energy

Big employer, especially oil industry. More than 50 HEP power plants supply Alaskan communities with a 1/5 of their electricity. Geothermal energy is also being harnessed in tectonic-ally active parts of the state: a tourist resort at Chera Hot Springs near Fairbanks is powered entirely by geothermal power.

Opportunities of Alaska: Mineral Extraction

1/5 of the state’s mining wealth comes from gold. The process used for gold ore uses harmful chemicals, that can harm humans and ecosystems. In 2013, the Pebble Mine gold project was closed down due to oppositions. Native Americans ran an effective ‘No Dirty Gold’ campaign.

Opportunities of Alaska: Tourism

Attracts between 1 and 2 million summer visitors yearly. Tourism is one of Alaska’s biggest employers, although some work is seasonal and poorly paid.Popular activities include whale watching and Kayaking, with 60% of summer visitors being cruise ship passengers.The state has numerous national pars, preserves, refuges and monuments.

Challenges of Alaska: Climate

Low population density, due permafrost and short thermal growing season rules out crop production and none in the northern interior of the state due to the low temperatures and months without sunlight.

Challenges of Alaska: Accessibility

Uneven ground due to the seasonal melting and refreezing at the active layer, making travel impossible.Snow and ice make some roads and tracks unusable for months of the year. Solification - a process where on slopes the soil’s active layer start to flow downhill. Large amounts of soils and mud can collect at the base of slopes covering highways, cutting places off for months.

Opportunities and Challenges of Alaska: Buildings and infastructure

Heat escaping the underside of properties led to the melting of frozen ground beneath: the land under many homes. Ultilities such as water,sewerage and gas cannot be buried underground or they would freeze too.

Trans-Alaskan Pipeline

In 1969 – oil discovered at Prudhoe Bay

Enabled Oil to be transported 1300km North to South

Problems: Crosses Rivers. Oil from ground is very hot – could melt permafrost.Pumping stations keep it moving. Passes beneath rivers.Possible cracks caused by earthquakes – could lead to leaks.Large herds (Caribou) migrate across route of the pipeline

Solution:Pumping stations keep it moving. Passes beneath rivers.Raised on stilts and insulated to retain heat. Supported and flexible: flow of oil stops if there is a leak. Raised to allow Caribou to migrate underneath

WWF in Canada

The WWF…

Works with local communities to manage critical ecosystems, e.g. Beaufort Sea

Supports scientific research to help protect important species such as polar bears, narwhal and Greenland Shark

Works with oil companies, local Inuit organisations and government regulators to plan for a sustainable future for the Arctic

Successes: Bowhead Whale Sanctuary to be Protected in Nunavut

An extensive area off the coast of Baffin Island, Nunavut, has become Canada's newest proposed National Wildlife Area. This area contains critical habitat for threatened bowhead whales.

International Organisations - Arctic Council

Established in 1996, the International Agreements can influence what happens to cold environments and their ecosystems.This represents 8 countries and the indigenous people of the Arctic.Sustainable Development and Environmental Protection are priorities – but also ensure importance of not harming economies of indigenous people. Influential in implementing/enforcing protection laws.20.2% of the Arctic’s terrestrial area is protected

International Agreements – Antarctic Treaty

In 1959 the Antarctic Treaty was signed by countries with territorial claims to Antarctica.

Aim to protect natural environment of largest wilderness on Earth

Despite the discovery of valuable minerals, the Antarctic treaty has been successful in preventing economic development:

• Recognizes the importance of continents for scientific research, climate change

• Controls tourism and keeps disturbances to minimum

National Governments - Alaska

Alaska –

State is running short of money due to low world oil prices – some wanted to produce more to increase income.

Banned Oil Exploration from taking place in 12 million acres of Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

Just over 10% of all Arctic land now has some level of protection – but each country has its own laws on how industries are controlled.

Not all laws are followed through – Norway still hunts whales. Iceland still hunt shark.

Action by Governments – Alaska, USA

The National Environmental Policy Act, ensuring that companies involved with the

extraction and transportation of oil protect the natural environment and rights of native

people

Creation of Western Arctic Reserve – 9 million hectare protected wilderness. Drilling of oil prevented from this area

SUCCESS: the Western Arctic Caribou herd is the largest herd in Alaska.

Sustainable fisheries and protection of marine habitats – Fisherman and Scientists are working together to protecting vulnerable habitats from human impacts. Fundamental to maintaining Alaska’s commercial fishing industry, valued at $4.2 billion in sales impact.

Also using less intrusive methods which do not damage sea bed or coral – these methods are spreading across fisheries in Alaska

Non-Governmental Organisations

The Inuit Circumpolar Council – represents local indigenous people, protest on behalf of locals:

• Campaign against Pebble Mine

• In 2014 – Greenpeace sent campaigners to Russia’s arctic circle to protest against oil exploration – Russian government arrested and imprisoned them.

Greenpeace – want a ‘Global Sanctuary’ to be established in Arctic:

• All resources off limits

• No oil drilling or industrial fishing

However this could limit indigenous peoples cultures and traditions, and own opportunities for economic development