Roman History set

Periodization of Roman History

Characterized by the form of government:

Kingdom (753-509 BCE)

• Monarch (Kings)

Republic (509-31 BCE)

• had an early, mid and late period of the republic

Empire (31-476 CE).

Respublika

Oligarchy government during the Roman Republic.

Etruscans

Etruscans were not part of a unified state - part of city-states- Indo-European.

By the time Rome was developed, Etruscans were highly developed, and some cities were developed and powerful. - they had a common language, funerary ritual, king, and similar taste in an arch.

• Not much is known about the Etruscan orgins

• they flourished from the 9th to the 1st century BCE

• Climate and terrain favoured agricultural practices.

It is believed that for a period of time, the Etruscans dominated Rome.- It is debated if it was domination, occupation or strong influence. Etruscan cities were organized into leagues- important so that smaller communities were able to protect themselves from danger.

The relationship between Etruscan and Greeks was sometimes bad- Naval conflict- mainly a relationship of trade. the Etruscans and Greeks was sometimes bad- A naval conflict, mainly a trade relationship

Starting from early 5th cen (possible earlier) Etruscan cities came into conflict with Rome (which was growing as a major power) Etruscans civilization and political entity stopped existing.

Cloaca Maxima

Sewage system in Rome that had a major impact on the hygienic conditions of the city.

Paterfamilias

The male head of a Roman family with absolute authority over all household members.

often refereed to as Patis

Mos maiorum

The traditional customs and values of the ancestors in Roman culture.

Patrician

The wealthy elite class in Roman society, descendants of the founding fathers.

plebeian

Common people in Roman society, who had fewer rights and power than patricians.

Clientela

The system where wealthy families offered protection and assistance to lower-status individuals in return for services.

Pontifex Maximus

The chief priest in ancient Rome, overseeing various religious practices.

Cursus Honorum

The sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in Rome.

Dictator

A temporary Roman official with absolute power, appointed during a crisis, serving for a maximum of six months.

if the conflict in which they were appointed is over, they will resign. (and hand over the faces (power)

Dictators power is greater than the consuls (one instead of two)

24 Lictors (guards) follow him (each consul would regularly 12)

Dictator had a helper called “Master of the horse”

Tribunes of the Plebs

Elected representatives of the plebeians with the power to veto decisions of magistrates.

The Senate

The key political body in Rome, consisting mainly of ex-magistrates, with deliberative power but no legislative power.

Decemviri

A group of ten officials created to draft the first written codes of Roman law, known as the Twelve Tables.

Pomerium

The sacred boundary of the city of Rome.

Census

An official count or survey of the population, essential for determining wealth classes in Rome.

- 5 classes divided unevenly into 193 centuries

- 98 centuries: first class & cavalry

- Those below property requirements were grouped in one sentury

- For each class, half were seniores (40+) and half iuniores (under 40)

- Each century case one vote (by the time the voting reach the second class the majority was reached)

- The vote stopped once the majority was reached

The wealthiest people were represented in the army more - the system was proportionate in the political and military.

Auctoritas Patrum

The moral authority of the Senate, deriving from the influence of the patrician class.

Fasces

A bundle of rods and an axe, symbolizing the authority of Roman magistrates.

Regina

The title for the queen, overseeing religious rites in the Roman royal palace.

Sacrosanct

A status that made tribunes of the plebs untouchable and protected by religious sanctions.

Censorship

The duty of censors to conduct the census and oversee the morals of the Senate.

Domus

area within the pomerium (“home”)

- Only certain officials could hold power in domus and Militia

Militia

the world outside – the area of military service

• Distinction between civic activity “at home” (domi) and the military

sphere beyond the pomerium

Magistrates of the Republic

Collegiality – magistrates always came in boards

Popular election – through people’s assemblies

Annual term of office – no prosecution during their term

Prohibition of direct election from one office to another

Pattern of holding office: cursus honorum

Order: quaestor, (aediles), praetor, consul, (censor)

lex Villia annalis (184 BCE) set the minimum age for each office

Patris

the believed ancestors of Romulus and the founding fathers of Rome, who were believed to have a special connection to the city.

Patris meaning father - wealthy elder males - members of the senate were also called patris.

Roman religion

Also a competent of Roman religious practice - performative and ritualistic

- Religion and politics are never separated.

Magistrates of the republic

Collegiality- all the regular officials came in pairs - never just one official - to limit power.

popular elections- elected through the peoples assemblies.

Is only in office for one annual term- one year then another election ( they can move offices)

^ This continuous movement and election is to prevent the seizure of power.

- The magistrates had powers

Cursus Honorum

Offices were held in a certain order- 3 year pattern in order to get to the higher offices.

Order- Quaestor, Aediles (optional), Praetor, Consul(highest), Censor(optional)

Imperium

power of inflicting capital punishment inside the pomerium and to command an army.

Auspicia

observation of birds- they provide messages/will of the gods

Must be done before and after war

communing with the gods to make sure their will is being done.

Censors

- Established in the mid- 5th cen

- Optional step

- Came without power of command

- Selected among ex-consults

- Elected every5 years - in power for 18 months

- Responsible for the census & lustratio

- Census was important because it classed the citizens- army was citizen based - people had to join army and was responsible for buying/ making their armour.

- Leto senates: review of the roll of senators- able to remove a magistrate on moral ground.

Consuls

- The two chief magistrates of the state

- Magistrates with the power of Command- lead the Roma army when at war.

- Had the right and duty to take the auspicia ( bird/god communication) before and after war

Eponymous magistrate - gave name to the year. “This happened under the consulship of x and y”

- Accompanied by lictors each

- Elected by Domitian centuriata.

- If a consul stepped down or died - a consul sophectus(replacement

Praetors

- Magistrates Cum imperio

- Dealt with civic affairs when consuls were out dealing with wars.

- Run business in Rome was consuls were away.

Presided over proceedings in civil law

Cum imperio

“With sovereignty” It refers to the right to command the state's military forces, or supreme power. Outside the Imperium.

Aediles

not mandatory

- Magistrates without power of command

Plebeian Aedifies - same duties - 1 couple was Plebeian and one Curule

- In charge of putting up public games for the cities

- ^using own money - gives visibility to the person putting them on - important for getting elected

- Oversaw the marketplace

- Superintended roads and buildings

- Policing

Military tribunes with consular power

444- 367 BCE boards of 3,4 or 6 officers irregularly invested with the power of consuls

Military tribunes - normally a junior officers

Questors

- Magistrates sine imperio (not sure)

- Originally 2, then 4 , then added more (20)

- Financial magistrates

- Two controlled the treasury

Elected by comitia tributa

Interrex

Official appointed - to serve during the election of the new king (or if both consuls die)

• in this case the senate appoints one of them to take control and help during the elections - temp office to guarantee the smooth transition of office

Assemblies of the Roman people

- They elected the officials, passed law proposals (voted), acted as a court of law(judged accusation of criminal behaviour)

- Decided on declarations of war

- Lack initiative (not allowed to meet whenever)

- Lacked power of deliberation and modification

- Voted by unit (majority won within the units)

Centuriate Assembly

- Comitia Centuriata

- Voted magistrates com imperio (consul and pritor)

- Decided on war declarations - judged capital cases

- Organized by 193 centuries

- Originally fighting units - but organized in political units

- Citizens were organized in the centuries by their wealth - classes were given a different amount of centuries. (fighting and voting units) -

Tribal Assembly

- Tribes were geographical in Rome

○ City of Rome was divided into 4 districts and outside the city was its own 10. later it would increase to 35 tribes (despite the expansion of Rome)

○ When people would join Rome they were assigned a tribe(through the census). - must live in Rome to vote.

Judged non-capital cases. - Tribes were geographical in Rome

○ City of Rome was divided into 4 districts and outside the city was its own 10. later it would increase to 35 tribes (despite the expansion of Rome)

○ When people would join Rome they were assigned a tribe(through the census). - must live in Rome to vote.

Judged non-capital cases.

The Senate

- The major political power

- Did not have legislative power - could not pass laws

○ The body that discussed the laws

○ Considered moral authority and held decision-making power

○ Originally a council of elders

○ 318 BCE the censors drew up the list of senators from ex-magistrates

○ Could only convene when summoned by a magistrate

○ Had deliberative power - (no one went against them)

○ Peoples assemblies voted.

○ Resolutions: decrees of the senate (not laws but opinions) (rarely gone against)

Auctoritas Patrum ( from Patres)

Struggle of the order

- Distinction between Patricians and plebeians

- Patricians - from patres (Romulus advisors relatives) wealthy men.

- All others were plebeians (plebs)

- Patricians had the sole right to auspicia (talking to the gods through the birds)

- The plebs wanted public participation as well

- By the mid-fifth cen BCE, Patricians had the absolute monopoly of public offices(including religious ones)

Plebian Issues arose by the 5th cen -

- The Plebs of Rome retreated from Rome into the adventine hill

- The "succession" - the patricians gave them the right to have an assembly and represented.

A demand of the plebs were for written laws - this brought about the creation of the XII table of Rome.

- These laws are still around in fragments - in other literary sources.

- Sets the law that regulated the most important concerns of an agricultural society.

- Middle of 5th cent- the government action was suspended and these laws were written

- Decemviri established these laws - appeared in place of the consuls in 451 and 450 BCE.

Valerio-Horatian laws

- Another set of laws passed

- Sanctioned some of the rights and privileges of the pleb tributes the right of veto. - decleared their sacrosanctity

- 445 BCE- another law permitted the intermarriage of plebeians and patricians.

Decemvirate laws

Sets the law that regulated the most important concerns of an agricultural society.

- Middle of 5th cent- the government action was suspended and these laws were written

- Decemviri established these laws - appeared in place of the consuls in 451 and 450 BCE.

Significance of the XII Tables and the end of the Decemvirate

- Written laws to protect the plebians

First year of the assembly went well but the second year did not - The decemviri tired to upsurp political power and stay in office. In response, the plebeians seceded - the decemviri were forced to step down. - consulship was reinstated.

Leges Liciniae Sextiae

367 BCE

- Name of the law comes from the magistrates who proposed them. (2 tribunes of the year) (consuls or tribunes of the plebs)

- Opening the consulship to Plebeians-

- Law passed later that mandated that one of the 2 consuls must be a pleb.

- Abolishment of nexum only in 326 BCE

○ Established that one could pay off creditor in instalments (instead of a lump sum)

- Debt reduction

- Issue of land ownership -in the later republic

- There was limitations to the amount of land a citizen could hold.

- The patricians finally made concessions on debt due to the slaves they captured from war (no longer needed pleb slaves through debt)

- 287 - Lex Hortensia gave plebs the force of laws - could run for any office

The nobilitas

- Through the winning of war a new class was born (old patrician and wealthy Italian families)

- New alliance of patrician and plebeian families

- Nobilis= "one who is well-known"

- Homo novus= "new man"

○ Anyone who gained office outside of nobility

Bellum Iustum (meaning war)

- War must be conducted following the devine will - fighting with the gods on their side and thus always right.

- If they lost they were at fault and the gods were not happy with them.

Collage of fetiales demanded restitution from communities that were perceived to have crossed Rome or hurt its interest. - if the reparation didn’t come they had 30 days to give it- if not the Fetiales would go to the senate - declare war.

War against the Latin League (nomen Latinum)

- Fought many times against the Romans - due to the Romans aggressiveness of Rome.

 The Romans appointed a dictator, A. Postumius Albus (prominate family) (may be fake)

 499-496 BCE: Aulus won the battle at Lake Regillus against Latin forces & Tarquin

 484 BCE: the Romans dedicated a temple to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) (important Greek cult)- (spread in latinum -before Rome)

- Roman claiming the Dioscuri was an attempt to claim seniority over the latinum.

493 BCE: Cassian Treaty to defend themselves against common threats

 Aequi and Volsci in southern Latium

- Part of the treaty was that Rome got half the spoils and the rest went to the other cities.

Wars against The Volsci and the Aequi

- Volsci battle was not very important- Volsci later absorbed into Rome

- 490 - 489 BCE - C. Marcius warded off a sally from Corioli, which he captured gained the surname "coriolanus"

- After falling out with patricians, he aligned himself with the volsci

- Leading an army against Rome, he desisted only after his mother and wife's pleas

- 348 BCE L/Quincitius Cincinnatus was plucked from this farm to save Rome from the Aepui as a dictator

- He did the job in 16 days, laid down this command and returned to the farm.

○ Important idea to the Romans - serving the state and then returning to the community without personal gain.

Roman liked to think about their earlier times as untouched by outside influence. - this is untrue as they traded and had contact with many different peoples around the med.

The sack of Rome by the Gauls

- Gauls sacked the city - was very damaging to the Roman image

○ Significant impact on Rome's collective memory and self-identity.

- Unclear of how much damage was done

- Roman defeated at the river Allia

- Gauls returned twice more into central Italy but were repelled

Rome and the Samnites

- Hill people who lived in the Apennines east of campania

- Spock the Oscan lang - organized group, had magistrates

- 423 BCE " the Samnites took control of Capua - important commercial city

- Greek colonies in the region fell to the samnites- assimilated the people in the cities.

The first Samnite war (343-341 BCE)

354 BCE : Romans and Sammnites agreed to a treaty

War broke out when Capua requested help from Rome

- Capua offered itself up to Rome and it came.