AP Psychology Unit 3 (Part 2)

Classical Conditioning

A type of associative learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, the CS comes to elicit a respondent behavior (automatic response to a stimulus, e.g. shock after hearing a loud sound) in anticipation of the US

Components of Classical Conditioning

US - a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an UR

UR - an unlearned, naturally occurring response to a US

NS - a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

CS - an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with a US, comes to trigger a CR

CR - a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Pavlov’s Experiment

A pioneering experiment in classical conditioning

US - food

UR - salivation

CS - tone

CR - salivation

Operant Conditioning

A type of associative learning in which behavior frequency is conditioned through reinforcement or punishment

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)

A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Positive reinforcement - adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

Negative reinforcement - removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior

Positive punishment - adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior

Negative punishment - removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior

Reinforcement Schedules

Ratio (amount / # of times)

• Fixed: every X times behavior occurs

• Variable: after a random amount of times

Interval (time period):

• Fixed: every time period of length X (e.g. every 10 min)

• Variable: unpredictably often

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure; rewarding successive approximations to reinforce responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior

Observational Learning

Learning by observation others (AKA social learning)

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so; may enable imitation and empathy

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced/punished

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

Generalization

In classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses; in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Violence/Aggression & Media

Many studies have found that after viewing violent media, participants react more cruelly when provoked

John B. Watson

Redefined psychology as the study of observable behavior (not unconscious mind); behavioral psychologist; studied Pavlov’s experiments

Thorndike’s Law Of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

Prosocial/Antisocial Modeling

Prosocial modeling - observational learning of positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Antisocial modeling - observational learning of negative, destructive, harmful behavior

Edward Tolman

His experiment with rats in a maze revealed the concepts of cognitive maps and latent learning

Cognitive Maps

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment; demonstrated by Tolman’s rats in a maze

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

John Garcia

Through his experiments with poision/durgs and rats/sheep, he showed that organisms will avoid certain foods that they have eaten near the time they experience nausea or vomiting; an exception to the limits of classical conditioning

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation - doing something for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation - doing something for an external reward