Unit 4.1 / 4.2 / 4.3 - Social Psychology (CH13)

Altruism

The selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behavior without expectation of reward; for example, donating anonymously to charity.

Attribution

The process by which people explain the causes of behavior and events, often attributing them to either internal dispositions or external situations; for example, attributing someone's anger to their personality rather than to a bad day.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts it; for example, continuing to believe in a discredited conspiracy theory.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon in which the presence of others discourages an individual from intervening in an emergency situation; for example, not helping someone in distress because you assume someone else will.

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values; for example, feeling uncomfortable after cheating on a test because it conflicts with your belief in honesty.

Collectivism

A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of groups and collective goals over individual desires or outcomes; for example, prioritizing family obligations over personal achievements.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas between individuals or groups; for example, two coworkers disagreeing on how to approach a project.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match those of others, often due to real or imagined group pressure; for example, dressing similarly to friends to fit in.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group situations, often leading to impulsive and deviant behavior; for example, people acting more aggressively in a crowd during a protest.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The phenomenon whereby individuals are less likely to take action when in the presence of a large group; for example, not calling 911 during an emergency because you assume someone else will.

Equity

A condition in which people contribute to and receive from a relationship at similar levels; for example, both partners equally sharing household chores.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors; for example, believing that most people share your political views when they do not.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate the role of personal characteristics and underestimate the role of situational factors when explaining others' behaviors; for example, assuming a person is rude because of their character without considering they might be stressed.

Group Polarization

The phenomenon where group discussion leads to the enhancement of the group's prevailing tendencies; for example, after discussing racial issues, a group of like-minded people becomes more prejudiced.

Groupthink

The practice of thinking or making decisions as a group, often resulting in unchallenged, poor-quality outcomes; for example, a team agreeing on a project idea without critical evaluation to maintain harmony.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs that influence feelings and behavior, often without awareness; for example, automatically feeling nervous around someone based on their race without knowing why.

Individualism

A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of the individual and personal independence; for example, prioritizing personal goals over group objectives.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get; for example, thinking that poor people are responsible for their own poverty.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon whereby repeated exposure to a novel stimulus increases liking of it; for example, hearing a song on the radio repeatedly and eventually starting to like it.

Obedience

Complying with the commands of an authority figure; for example, following orders from a boss even if you disagree with them.

Persuasion

The process of convincing others to change their attitudes or behaviors, which can occur through various routes, such as the central or peripheral routes; for example, a commercial using a celebrity endorsement to sell a product.

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will respond to each other in kind, returning benefits for benefits and harm for harm; for example, helping a friend move because they helped you move previously.

Self-Disclosure

The act of revealing personal, intimate details about oneself to others, which can strengthen relationships; for example, sharing your fears and dreams with a close friend.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A prediction that causes itself to become true due to the feedback between belief and behavior; for example, believing you'll fail a test can lead to actions that cause you to fail.

Self-Serving Bias

The common habit of a person taking credit for positive events or outcomes, but blaming outside factors for negative events; for example, attributing a good grade to intelligence but a bad grade to an unfair test.

Social Comparison

Evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others; for example, feeling inadequate when comparing your social media presence to others.

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs; for example, choosing to end a friendship that is more emotionally draining than rewarding.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others compared to when alone, typically better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks; for example, running faster when others are watching.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that people can learn new behaviors by observing others, which includes the idea of vicarious reinforcement; for example, a child learning to share by watching their peers.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone; for example, a student contributing less in a group project assuming others will pick up the slack.

Social Norms

The unwritten rules about how to behave in society; for example, not talking loudly in a movie theater.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people should help others who need help, even if it costs them something; for example, helping a stranger with directions without expecting anything in return.

Social Trap

A situation in which conflicting parties, by each pursuing their own self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior; for example, companies polluting a river because each wants to maximize its own profit, resulting in overall environmental damage.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation; for example, two rival groups working together to clean up their neighborhood.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning through the observation of others' experiences, without direct experience of the consequences; for example, developing a fear of snakes after seeing someone else react fearfully to them.

Central Route Persuasion

A method of persuasion that involves deeply processing the content of the message, where the audience is motivated and able to think critically about the arguments presented; for example, being convinced to adopt a healthier lifestyle after reading detailed research on the benefits of exercise and a balanced diet.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

A method of persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as the attractiveness of the speaker or the emotional appeal of the message, rather than the content itself; for example, choosing a product because a popular celebrity endorses it, even if you know little about the product's actual benefits.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

a compliance strategy where a small initial request is made, followed by a larger request once the person has agreed to the first; Example: Asking someone to sign a petition (small request) and then later asking them to donate money to the cause (larger request).

Door-in-the-Face Technique

a compliance strategy where a large request is made first, expecting it to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request; Example: Asking someone to volunteer 10 hours a week (large request) and, after they refuse, asking them to volunteer for just one hour (smaller request).

Asch Experiment (1951)

A study on conformity where participants were more likely to give incorrect answers to match the group's consensus even when they knew the correct answer; example: Saying a line is shorter because everyone else says so, even though it is obviously not.

Attribution Theory

The theory explaining how individuals infer the causes of others' behavior, distinguishing between dispositional (internal) and situational (external) attributions; example: Assuming someone is late because they are lazy (dispositional) or because of traffic (situational).

Automatic Mimicry (Chameleon Effect)

The unconscious imitation of others' behaviors, such as facial expressions or gestures, often leading to social bonding; example: Yawning when you see someone else yawn.

Code Switching

The practice of shifting between different languages or varieties of language depending on the social context; example: Speaking formally in a job interview but using slang with friends.

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members; example: Refusing to hire someone based on their gender.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

A model describing two routes to persuasion—central (focused on argument quality) and peripheral (focused on superficial cues); example: Being persuaded to buy a car by logical arguments (central) versus the attractiveness of the salesperson (peripheral).

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

The tendency to agree to a large request after first agreeing to a small request; example: Agreeing to volunteer for one hour, then later agreeing to volunteer for a whole day.

Frustration-Aggression Principle

The principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression; example: A driver becomes aggressive after getting stuck in traffic on the way to an important meeting.

Implicit Racial Associations (Project Implicit)

Unconscious associations between race and certain traits or attitudes, often revealed through tests like those from Project Implicit; example: Associating certain races with specific traits like being aggressive without conscious awareness.

Ingroup vs. Outgroup

The tendency to favor one's own group (ingroup) over others (outgroup), leading to ingroup bias; example: Favoring your school's sports team over a rival team.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality; example: Deciding which side of the road to drive on when visiting a new country by observing others.

Milgram Experiment

A study that demonstrated the power of authority in compelling people to obey, even when doing so conflicted with their personal morals; example: Participants continuing to administer shocks despite hearing the learner's cries of pain.

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval; example: Laughing at a joke you don't find funny because everyone else is laughing.

Other Race Effect

The tendency to more easily recognize faces of one's own race than those of other races; example: Finding it harder to distinguish between faces of people from different racial backgrounds.

Role-Playing

Adopting a new role can affect attitudes and behavior, as shown in the Stanford Prison Experiment where participants adapted to their roles as guards or prisoners, leading to extreme behaviors; example: Guards becoming abusive even though they were ordinary people outside the experiment.

Scapegoat Theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame; example: Blaming immigrants for economic problems.

Situational Factors

External influences on behavior, such as the environment or other people; example: Attributing someone's anger to a stressful day at work.

Social Perception

The process of interpreting information about another person; example: Forming an impression of someone based on their body language during an interview.

Social Script

Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations; example: Knowing to shake hands when meeting someone new in a professional setting.

Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment

A study where participants played roles of prisoners and guards, demonstrating the power of situational factors and role-playing in influencing behavior; example: Guards became abusive even though they were ordinary people outside the experiment.

Belief Perseverance

A tendency to hold on to original beliefs despite contradictory evidence can lead to resistance to new information and biased reasoning. A person who believes a debunked health myth may continue avoiding vaccines even after reading scientific studies disproving their concerns.

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The assumption that members of an outside group are more similar to one another than members of one's own group can contribute to stereotyping and discrimination. A sports fan may assume all supporters of a rival team are aggressive, while seeing their own team's fans as diverse in personality.

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one's own culture can lead to misunderstandings and bias. A traveler from a country where tipping is expected may view those who do not tip as rude, rather than considering different cultural norms.

Social Influence Theory

The idea that behavior is shaped by the presence of others and can result from a desire for approval or the assumption that others have better information influences decision-making. A person may start clapping at a concert just because the rest of the audience is doing so, even if they were not particularly impressed.

Superordinate Goals

When opposing groups work together toward a shared objective, they reduce tension and create cooperation despite previous conflicts. Two rival school clubs may put aside their differences to organize a fundraiser for a common charity.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

The study of how psychological principles apply to workplace behavior focuses on improving productivity, leadership, and employee well-being. A company hiring an expert in this field might implement structured hiring practices to reduce bias and increase job satisfaction.

Explanatory Style (Optimistic)

The tendency to interpret events in a way that emphasizes personal control and the likelihood of positive outcomes leads to greater resilience and motivation. A student who receives a low grade on a test believes that with more studying, they can improve next time.

Explanatory Style (Pessimistic)

A habitual way of explaining life events that emphasizes external control and the expectation of negative outcomes can contribute to learned helplessness and decreased motivation. A person who struggles to make friends assumes that social rejection is inevitable, rather than seeing it as something they can change.

Locus of Control (Internal)

The belief that personal actions determine life outcomes fosters accountability, persistence, and self-efficacy. An athlete who loses a game attributes it to a lack of preparation and trains harder for the next competition.

Locus of Control (External)

The belief that external forces, such as luck or fate, dictate life outcomes can reduce motivation and promote passivity. A student who fails a test assumes it was because the teacher is unfair rather than considering ways to improve their studying habits.