Earth Science

permafrost

Land that has been continuously frozen for more than two years

two to four

The Arctic is warming ____ times faster than the rest of the planet

30-50%

According to a study on Arctic infrastructure, what percentage of critical infrastructure is at high risk of damage by 2050 due to permafrost thaw?

Methane

The Siberian heatwave of 2020 led to new emissions of what potent greenhouse gas from permafrost?

84 times

Over a 20-year period, methane is how many times more powerful in trapping heat than carbon dioxide?

The cryosphere

What is the term for the collective elements of the earth system containing water in its frozen state?

0 degrees Celsius

The cryosphere is highly sensitive to climate change because most of it is, on average, near what temperature?

Albedo

A number from 0 to 1 indicating how well a surface reflects solar energy, with 0 being a perfect absorber and 1 a perfect reflector

A positive feedback loop

In the context of climate science, what type of feedback loop amplifies the effects of disturbances, carrying a system further from equilibrium

ice-albedo feedback loop

Warmer temperatures melt snow and ice, revealing darker land/ocean, which absorbs more sunlight, leading to further warming

thin components

Components with small volume but large area, such as seasonal snow cover and sea ice

The active layer

What term describes the layer of ground above permafrost that is subject to annual freezing and thawing?

hurricane watch

An announcement that hurricane conditions are possible within a specified coastal area, usually issued 48 hours in advance

hurricane warning

An announcement that hurricane conditions (sustained winds of 74 mph or greater) are expected somewhere within a specified coastal area

storm surge

An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a hurricane or other intense storm, beyond the predicted astronomical tides

biggest hurricane forecasting challenge

Improving the ability to predict hurricane intensity (how strong it will become)

temperature

The saturation vapor pressure of air increases as ____ increases

dew point

The temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor, holding vapor content constant

relative humidity equation

Relative Humidity = (Actual Vapor Pressure / Saturation Vapor Pressure) x 100

cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)

Particles in the atmosphere, such as dust or salt crystals, that provide a surface for water vapor to condense upon are called ____

Atmospheric convergence, convection (thermal uplift), and orographic uplift

What are the three situations that generate significant rates of adiabatic cooling and subsequent precipitation?

lifted condensation level (LCL)

The altitude at which the temperature of a rising air parcel meets its dew point, leading to cloud formation

cold

A ____ front occurs when an advancing cold air mass runs under and displaces a warmer air mass in its path

low; high

In the Northern Hemisphere, winds spiral counter-clockwise into a ____ pressure system and clockwise out of a ____ pressure system

orographic uplift

The process where an air mass is forced to rise as it moves over a mountain range, leading to cooling and precipitation

Saffir-Simpson

Scale used for categorizing hurricane intensity based on sustained wind speeds

ingredients for hurricane formation

1) Warm sea surface temperature (>26.5 C), 2) Atmospheric instability (rising air), 3) Little/no vertical wind shear, 4) Sufficient latitude (>5-10 degrees off equator)

cone of uncertainty

Represents the probable track of the center of the storm, with the width based on the average track error of past forecasts

The eyewall

In which part of a hurricane are the winds the strongest?

El Nino impact on Atlantic hurricane season

They tend to suppress hurricane activity by increasing vertical wind shear

Soil

What is the term for unconsolidated mineral or organic material that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants?

soil horizon

A vertical layer of soil whose characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath it is called a ____

CLORPT (Climate, Organisms, Relief, Parent material, Time)

What is the acronym used to remember the five major factors of soil formation?

physical weathering

Disintegrates rock without changing its chemical composition

chemical weathering

Chemical weathering decomposes it through chemical reactions

Porosity

The ratio of the volume of pore space in a material (like soil) to its total volume

Permeability

A measure of the ease with which a fluid (like water) can move through a porous material, indicating how well the pores are connected

saturated zone

The zone in the subsurface where all pore spaces are filled with water is known as the ____

water table

The boundary between the saturated zone and the unsaturated zone in the subsurface is called the ____

capillary fringe

A zone just above the water table where water is drawn up from the saturated zone by capillary action

aquifer

A subsurface rock or soil formation that can store and transmit significant quantities of water is called an ____

confined aquifer

Trapped between low-permeability layers (aquitards)

unconfined aquifer

Its upper country is the water table itself

Darcy’s Law

What scientific law describes the flow of groundwater through porous media?

land subsidence

The sinking of landing that can result from excessive groundwater pumping is called ____

cone of depression

A downward-pointing, cone-shaped depression of the water table that forms around a well from which water is being pumped

salt water intrusion

In coastal areas, over pumping of groundwater can lead to ____, where ocean water moves into freshwater aquifers

main types of drought

Meteorological (lack of rain), agricultural (low soil moisture), and hydrological (depleted groundwater/surface water)

gaining

A stream that receives water from the groundwater system because its channel is below the water table is called a ____ stream

losing

A stream that loses water to the groundwater system because its channel is because its channel is above the water table is called a ____ stream

infiltration excess

Overland flow generated when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate of infiltration is known as ____

saturation excess

Overland flow generated when the soil becomes fully saturated and can no longer absorb more water is known as____

Groundwater to the stream (base flow)

Which component of streamflow is always happening, even during a drought?

weather

Short-term atmospheric conditions

Climate

Long-term prevailing weather patterns (typically over 30 years or more)

coalescence

The growth of cloud droplets by larger drops falling and colliding with smaller drops is called ____

Hail

What type of hydrometeor is formed in strong thunderstorm updrafts as it gathers liquid water and tumbles?

Spaghetti plots

Visualizations that show the potential future tracks of a tropical system from various computer models

what spaghetti plots don’t show

They do not show impacts like rainfall, wind strength, storm surge, intensity, or the size of the storm

ensemble

A collection of forecasts from one model run multiple times with slightly different initial conditions is called an ____

Bermuda/Azores High

The semipermanent high-pressure system over the Atlantic that often steers hurricanes is known as the ____

Fossil water

What is the term for old groundwater that has been stored for thousands of years and cannot be readily replaced on human timescales?

The O horizon

In soil science, which soil horizon is primarily composed of organic material?

Loam

What soil texture, composed of a mix of sand, silt, and clay, is considered ideal for agriculture?

Daily precipitation

Skewed with 0 cm being most frequent

Annual precipitation

Often follows a normal (gaussian) distribution

adiabatic

The change in temperature of a rising or sinking air parcel without heat exchange with its surroundings is known as ____ cooling or heating

ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)

A convergence zone near the equator where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together characterized by high rainfall

air mass

A ____ is a large body of air with similar temperature and moisture properties in the horizontal direction

purpose of HLT (Hurricane Liaison Team)

To serve as a liaison between NHC forecasters and federal, state, and local emergency managers

why not all clouds produce rain

They may be too short-lived, too shallow, or too high for droplets to grow large enough to fall or to survive the fall to the ground

artesian

A well in which water rises above the aquifer due to pressure from an overlying confining layer is called an ____ well

The E horizon (zone of elevation)

In which soil horizon does the transport of material from upper layers downwards (percolation) primarily occur?

Clay

Which soil particle type—sand, silt, or clay—has the smallest size and the highest water retention capability?

sea ice heat flux feedback

A positive feedback where decreasing sea ice allows the ocean to transfer more heat to the atmosphere, which in turn leads to further temperature increases and ice melt

Thermokarsts

What is the term for large mounds that form in Siberia as a result of permafrost thawing?

reason stalled hurricanes are so destructive

Their slow movement allows them to dump enormous amounts of rainfall over one area for an extended period, causing catastrophic flooding

Macropores

What is the term for large, continuous pathways in soil formed by organisms like roots and insects that encourage rapid water infiltration?