Anth 112 : Neandertals - Chpt 5

when and who - the initial occupation of Western Europe

Homo erectus migrated to Western Europe by about 1.4 mya

first to leave Africa, have significant use of tools, and use of fire 

lots of debate of what to label the species, differentiation?

earliest hominin fossils in western Europe are classified as 

• Homo erectus 

• Homo antecessor 

Early Western European Sites - Sima del Elefante, Spain

this site contains some of the oldest hominin fossils in western Europe

• partial hominin midface found in levels between 1.1 to 1.4mya - “first human face of Western Europe”

• face resembles Homo erectus, but has been classified as Homo affinis erectus

  • name symbolizes the similarity, a branch of migrated erectus 

site is well stratified

has also found a jaw, dated to 1.2mya, found above the previous 

animal bones with marks, indicating hunting and tool use, was also found 

Early Western European Sites - Gran Dolina, Spain 

Homo antecessor fossils found, dated to 800,000yrs 

• little more complete, upper jaw, back of skull 

• 1000ccm cranial capacity, low forehead, jut in back of skull 

looks different than erectus and affinis, but these three are usually all clumped together with erectus 

this site also has evidence of cannibalism, bones recovered have stone tool cut marks, bones smashed open for marrow 

bones treated the same as animal bones, cut marks, disposal, breakage pattern - label it as cannibalism instead of a cultural practice 

Homo heidelbergensis 

dated to 600,000 to 400,000 yrs

well represented

many paleoanthropologists suggest its the ancestor of Neandertals (most direct ancestor) in Europe, modern humans in Africa, and another species in Asia 

• different branches of the same species

• between modern and erectus 

• 1100 to 1400ccm cranial capacity - within modern range 

• large midface region

• large, arched brow ridges and a large, rounded occipital torus - erectus had an angular one 

Sima de los Huesos - Pit of Bones

Homo heidelbergensis site in northern Spain

dated 430,000 yrs, and over 6500 fossils were found representing at least 28 individuals

• was able to extracts DNA (incredible, rare) and was able to reconstruct genomes

  • DNA showed that they were very similar to Neandertral, linked them together

  • the environment was consistently moist and cool, which led to the protection and preservation of the DNA

• can treat it like a crime scene - can actually use forensics

• “First Murder Victim” - skull with stone tool marks in skull, cause of death

Schoningen, Germany

Homo heidelbergensis site - preserved wooden spears 

several spears were found in association with stone tools and butchered remains of large animals 

337,000 to 300,000 yrs dated 

• known as hunters

• spruce wood, 6-7ft, sharpened ends, looked like modern day javelins

• rapidly covered, glacial sediment, making an anaerobic environment, halts decomposition 

• butchered remains of animals - deer, wild cattle, wild horses - big game hunters 

Boxgrove Site, England 

Homo heidelbergensis site, dated to 524,000 to 420,000yrs 

perforated horse scapula, shoulder blade, with a circular puncture wound indicates big game hunting with spears 

an abundance of butchered animal bone and more than 100 finely made hand axes found 

a tibia from site was identified as heidelbergensis

even found four butchered rhinoceros - cave bear, wild horses; different game compared to today

Geographic and Temporal Distribution of Neandertals

range extends from Western Europe and expanded into Asia to Siberia

most sites are in Europe and the oldest dates to 300,000yrs

“Classic” Neandertals date 130,000 to 30,000yrs

• anatomical modern humans around 50,000yrs ago in Europe; multiple lineages, interacted with each other

hundreds of individuals found, at least 500 - well represented

Early Neandertal Reconstruction

when they were first discovered they were depicted as apelike in apelike, not fully bipedal, hairy, carrying a club, giving the idea of non-sophisticated, “dumb”

have been known for a long a time, first discovery was in the 1800s in the Neander Valley in Germany

at this time premodern human was not accepted - people stated it was a diseased person, frowning caused the eye ridge

name suggestion was Homo stupidus - trying to keep it away from modern humans

La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France 

Neandertal skull was found in 1908

this is the discovery that led to the initial reconstruction 

Boule interpreted them as brutish and dim witted with a stooped over appearance and shuffling walk 

this skull actually had a 1600ccm cranial capacity - very large, even larger than some modern humans 

fossil does exhibit arthritis, gum infection, teeth loss

we now recognize that Neandertals are much more modern in both appearance and behaviors 

Neandertal Physical Characteristics

• large brains - same size as average modern human brains; 1480ccm

• long and low skulls (football like - humans are globular) with large occipital torus (expansion of back of skull)

• large, arched brow ridge - supraorbital torus

• no chin - mental eminence

• larger jaw and teeth - taurodont molars

  • teeth enamel gone - proof of teeth being used as tools

• large nose, high and wide, big nasal cavity - good for cold climate

• post cranial - stocky, robust, powerfully built - areas of muscle attachment (broader chest, larger lung capacity), short

  • overall human like

• shorter limbs, stocky build - helps retain heat, built to survive the cold climate they lived in

striations on teeth can indicate if they are left or right handed, drag of tools when hide is held in their mouth, scraping

Neandertals Intentional Burials

many Neandertal sites revealed evidence of intentional burial of the dead

first group of hominin that practice burial

ritual, symbolic behavior, recognition of death - all debated

or was it just to get rid of, away from scavengers

La Ferrassie, France 

Neandertal site dated to 50,000 years ago

intentional burial 

male, female, and 5 juveniles were recovered

male and female laid head-to-head; indicates intentional placement 

Shanidar Cave, Iraq

Neandertal burial site dated to 50,000yrs

a severely injured individual, seemingly lost their arm and it healed, may indicate that the Neandertals had compassion and cared for their companions

flower pollen was recovered from the site by taking soil samples, has been suggested that the flowers were intentionally places at the site

• lots of debate again

• some suggest the pollen is the result of rodent activity, collect flower heads and bring back to their nest

Kebara Cave, Israel

Neandertal burial site dated to 60,000yrs

well preserved skeleton, most of upper body even ribs

had a rarely preserved hyoid bone, this anchors the muscles that are necessary for speech

comparing to anatomical humans, they are the same

had the structure that allowed them to speak

Neandertal language evidence

the structure of the Neandertal hyoid bone is the same as that of a modern human which may indicate the ability to produce speech

the retrieval of neandertal DNA has allowed for the comparison of the genomes of humans and Neandertals 

the FOXP2 gene has been identified, plays a role in the development of language 

• have the same capacity for speech and language as modern humans 

• don’t know if it was to the same degree or how it sounded

• based on hunting evidence there would have had to have been some sort of communication 

Neandertal Technology : the Mousterian Tool Tradition

• named after the site of Le Moustier, France

• produced a variety of tool types including scrapers and triangular points

• toolkit contains a higher proportion of smaller flake tools compared to large hand axes

• Mousterian tools were manufactures using the Levallois technique

finely made, technologically sophisticated

something that will break in a predictable way, percussion flake it

shape the rock into a variety of different tools

indicates a capacity for planning, forethought, communication (passed down)

attach to handles, use tree sap as glue

were close range hunters, have spears but still close

Neandertals had evidence of lots of trauma, broken bones - rough hunting

Reconstructing Neandertal Diet - 3 locations

Vindija Cave, Croatia

• stable isotope analysis revealed that the Neandertals at this site almost entirely dependent on meat

• stable isotopes do not break down, no decay, can determine past diet

• carbon and nitrogen that became incorporated into the bone collogen, levels found were the same as found in top level carnivores - wolfs, lions

El Salt, Spain

• 50,000-year-old coprolites revealed that the Neandertals at this site ate meat and plants

• coprolites are preserved human waste, fatty compounds are studied

• health details can be looked at - bacteria, pinworm

Spy, Belgium and El Sidron, Spain - 42,000 to 50,000

• analysis of dental calculus revealed a varied diet, also suggests that Neandertals were knowledgeable about medicinal properties of plants

• not bone study - calculus, hardened plaque build up

• varied diet - woolly rhino, sheep

• in Spain - more plants; moss, mushrooms - one individual had a dental growth and popular was found (modern day pain killers - plant medicine)

Massive Elephant Hunting - Neandertals

successfully hunt large game - cut marks found

indicates working together to hunt and butcher, tracking

younger males hunted (up to 13 tons, females 6); they usually isolate themselves - can see that they were being targeted

200-600 person hours to butcher, 25 individuals in a hunter-gatherer group, 3-5 days just to process the entire being

2500 proportions can be processed with one hunt, 3 months of meals

Evidence of Neandertal Cannibalism - 2 locations 

Moula Geurcy, France 

• dates 100,000yrs 

• evidence of cannibalism - cut marks, ones created by stone tools are different sizes and able to be determined

• disposed in same area of hunted animal bones (deer)

• bone cracked for marrow, skull for brain - indicating diet use, not just killing 

El Sidron, Spain 

• dates 44,000yrs

• 12 individuals recovered, with evidence of cannibalism on bones - stone tool cut marks, stone flakes broken off and in bone

• even more remarkably DNA was found, and was able to reconstruct how the group was related to each other - males seem more closely related (perhaps males stay in their area and females travel for mating) and was able to connect 3 children to two females (mother and children) 

• this group showed signs of malnutrition, resources low, perhaps used cannibalism for survival 

DNA analysis of Neandertals 

scientists have retrieved DNA from numerous Neandertal fossils which has enabled the genome comparison of Neandertals and modern human populations 

once viewed as species that were incredibly different from modern humans, genetic evidence reveals that Neandertals and modern humans interbred 

• DNA has to be similar enough to breed and create fertile offspring 

present day non-African populations have Neandertal DNA in their genome between 1-3% 

• very little Neandertal DNA is African genomes - evolved separately and migration 

Neandertal Cave Painting - La Pesiega Cave, Spain

these painting are often described as the world’s oldest cave paintings and might provide evidence of Neandertal creation of cave painting

uranium-thorium dating of calcium carbonate crusts that formed on top of pigment suggests that a cave painting may have been created over 64,000yrs ago

• cave paintings are difficult to date, can’t date inorganic material

• use red pigment, ochre - the actual pigment is not dated but the hardened moisture can be

most cave sites have multiple drawings, and most are younger

people think the painting found is an outlier, that it is actually younger and not made by Neandertals

Neandertal Ornamentation - 3 locations

Krapina, Croatia

• modified eagle talons worn as jewelry, have indication of being tied to something

• talons date to 130,000yrs

Fumane Cave, Italy

• bird bones with cut marks indicate that feathers were intentionally removed (not hunting - bird species were not a good food source, only wings being plucked) these feathers could have been used as ornamentation

Southeast Spain

• two sites dated to 50,000yrs, have found perforates and pigment-stained shells; has trace minerals often used as pigments, shell may have been a container '

• face paint, walls, colored and used as ornaments

The Denisovans

recently discovered hominin group named after the Denisova Cave site in the Altai Mountains of Siberia

dates from 200,000 to 50,000yrs

DNA from a finger bone was analysed and identified as belonging to a previously unknown human group separate from Neandertals and modern humans

• has been extracted from a tiny bone from the pinky of a young female and has been extracted from several large teeth

does not have a genus or species, don’t have the physical characteristics at first

some decorative items found here as well but hard to tell who made it, multiple species in the same area, Neandertal remains also found here

Denisovan interbreeding

evidence of interbreeding with anatomically modern humans and neandertals

Denisovan DNA is has also been found in the modern human genome, about 5% of some present-day populations in East Asia

• one individual from the cave had equal amounts of Neandertal and Denisovan ancestry, the presence of mtDNA indicates the mother was Neandertal

have fertile offspring

Neandertal and Denisovans are more closely related than Denisovan to modern humans, but all three lived at the same time and had a common ancestor between them, homo heidlburgensis

Denisovan first bone discovery 

Denisovan DNA was obtained from the dental calculus of a 146,000-year-old specimen from Harbin, China

had previously been identified as Homo longi

this was discovered in 2025, very recent 

now had a skull

Anatomically Modern Human name

Homo sapiens sapiens

genus species subspecies

Modern Human Physical Characteristics

• large brain - average cranial capacity 1450ccm - about same size as Neandertal

• high rounded skull - globular skull with curved occipital region vs the long low shape and protrusion of Neandertals

• high vertical forehead without large brow ridges

• small midface and smaller nasal cavity, not prognathic

• smaller teeth and jaw, more delicate

• mental eminence - prominent chin

• tall and slender compared to Neandertals (short and stocky, shorter limb proportions)

• eye sockets - more rectangular

Oldest Modern Human

oldest fossil found in Africa 

transitional forms intermediate between premodern and anatomically modern humans are only found in Africa 

300,000yrs was the first obvious evolution into modern 

• have modern characteristics (teeth, jaw, shape of face) but also premodern - transitional

• do not see in the gradual change Asia and Europe, we see the sudden appearance - of the species 

• also see the sudden appearance of tool types, brought tech and cultural aspects with the migration 

• important to note that there is overlap of modern humans and premodern forms, including Neandertals 

some believe that modern humans began in Africa, and emerged from there, taking the place of pre-modern humans 

others believe they evolved separately in Africa, Asia, and Europe - different area of evolution 

timing of the migration is important to note 

Early modern Homo sapiens in Africa - 5 sites

Jebel Irhoud, Morocco

• 300,000yr fossil, a transitional species, more humanlike face and shape of cranium, human like dental

• North Africa, suspected to find oldest in east, proves they are widespread

Omo, Ethiopia

• 233,000yrs - globular cranium and no massive brow ridge

Herto, Ethiopia

• 160,000yrs - clearly modern human, not prognathic, higher forehead, cranium

Border Cave, South Africa

• 80,000-70,000 - see the utilization of different resources, tool types, fish diet

Blombos Cave, South Africa

• 70,000yr incised ochre recovered - artwork, ornamentation, beads; striations clearly made by humans, patterns; seeing new ways of expressing themselves

300,000 to 200,000 very large presence in Africa

Early modern Homo sapien sites in the Middle East

Qafzeh/Skuhl, Israel

• 120,000yrs

• Neandertals found here as well, overlap, modern found here are older than Neandertals

• humans move in and out, then Neandertals expanded

Early modern Homo sapiens sites in Europe - 4 sites 

Mandrin, France

• 54,000yrs - modern human incursion into Neandertal territories, see groups moving in and out of areas, territory 

Pestera cu Oase, Romania 

• 40,000yrs - interbreeding evidence, individual of combined traits 

Cro-Magnon Rockshelter, France 

• 30,000yrs - ealry anatomically modern humans of Europe are often called Cro-Magnon people, first found here 

• Cro-Magnon 1 (a specific individual) has a circular lesion on the frontal bone, reanalysis of the skull using CT scans suggests he had a genetic condition called Neurofibromatosis Type 1 - tumors that effect underlying bone structure 

• late 1800s excavation, known of existence for a long time 

migration 55,000yrs ago

Neandertals well established here, lots of interaction 

5000 to 10,000 years of interaction