Operant Behavior and Reinforcement Schedules in Psychology

Operant behavior (definition)

Behavior influenced by its consequences; most everyday behaviors we care about (dieting, exercise, studying) are operants.

Ways to influence operant behavior

1) Reinforce desired behavior (primary/conditioned; positive/negative; intrinsic). 2) Extinguish problem behavior by removing reinforcers. 3) Differential reinforcement - extinguish problem behavior while reinforcing an alternative. 4) Shaping - reinforce successive approximations.

Motivation (behavior-analytic view)

Not "willpower" or "desire"; instead, motivation = reinforcer efficacy at a given time, altered by environmental or biological variables.

Motivating Operation (MO)

An antecedent variable that changes (a) the value of a reinforcer and (b) the current frequency of behavior that has produced that reinforcer in the past.

Establishing Operation (EO)

Increases the value/effectiveness of a reinforcer and evokes behavior that has produced it (e.g., food deprivation increases the value of food and food-seeking).

Abolishing Operation (AO)

Decreases the value/effectiveness of a reinforcer and abates behavior that has produced it (e.g., satiation or winning the lottery reducing work-maintained behavior).

Simple ways to increase 'motivation'

Introduce a mild EO (e.g., brief deprivation) and limit noncontingent access to the reinforcer or close substitutes (AO control).

Identifying reinforcers

Use reinforcer surveys and stimulus preference assessments; look for stimuli that already maintain high-probability behavior (Premack principle).

Premack principle

Access to a high-probability behavior (e.g., running on a wheel) can function as a reinforcer for a low-probability behavior; response hierarchy matters.

Breakpoint (progressive-ratio)

The highest response requirement completed to obtain a reinforcer; a measure of reinforcer efficacy (higher breakpoint = stronger reinforcer).

Four dimensions of effective reinforcers - Contingency

Reinforcer must depend on the target response (If R → Then SR); noncontingent delivery weakens control and can impede learning.

Four dimensions - Size

Larger reinforcers generally increase behavior; reducing reinforcer size can decrease dangerous behavior (clinical/safety applications).

Four dimensions - Quality

Subjective value to the individual; higher-quality reinforcers maintain higher response rates.

Four dimensions - Immediacy

The shorter the delay from response to reinforcer, the stronger the control; immediate delivery is best for acquisition and maintenance.

Habit (operant)

An operant evoked by antecedent stimuli that persists despite an AO for the reinforcer (e.g., brushing teeth when seeing toothbrush).

Habit formation (procedure)

1) Identify antecedents that occasion bad habits; 2) Replace them with antecedents for good habits; 3) Set easy initial goals; 4) Ensure contact with reinforcers; 5) Gradually increase goals (shaping).

Four consequence types (operant)

Positive reinforcement (+SR): add stimulus ↑ behavior; Negative reinforcement (SR−): remove stimulus ↑ behavior; Positive punishment (SP+): add stimulus ↓ behavior; Negative punishment (SP−): remove stimulus ↓ behavior.

Punishment (functional definition)

A consequence that decreases the future probability of the behavior it follows; defined by effect, not form or intent.

Punishment is natural

Everyday examples: stub toe → less shuffling; wrong ping-pong angle → miss → change swing; hot coffee burn → slower first sip.

Distinguishing reinforcement vs punishment in practice

If "No spitting!" leads to less spitting → punishment; if it leads to more → reinforcement (attention); if ignoring leads to stop → extinction.

Why 'justice' can reinforce tattling

Seeing a perpetrator punished may function as a reinforcer for tattling/complaint behavior (cooperation hypothesis).

Would anyone consent to punishment?

Yes—when paired with function-based reinforcement (e.g., FCT + punishment often chosen over FCT alone).

Use punishment effectively (meta)

Used well, it's needed rarely; used poorly, it's needed constantly.

Six characteristics of effective punishment - 1) Focus on reinforcement first

Identify and address reinforcers maintaining problem behavior (access to tangibles, attention, escape, automatic).

Six characteristics - 2) Combine with extinction or differential reinforcement

Block/withhold the reinforcer for problem behavior while reinforcing an alternative response.

Six characteristics - 3) Deliver immediately

Minimize delay between behavior and punisher to strengthen the relation.

Six characteristics - 4) Deliver contingently

Punisher follows only the target behavior — no noncontingent delivery.

Six characteristics - 5) Punish every time (during treatment)

High consistency required initially; sporadic delivery weakens effects and creates resistance.

Six characteristics - 6) Goldilocks intensity

Intensity must be sufficient to suppress without excess; too weak → persistence; too strong → side effects/ethical issues.

Primary vs conditioned punishers

Primary (unconditioned) = innately aversive; Conditioned = acquire aversive value via pairing (Pavlovian principles).

Timeout from positive reinforcement (definition)

A form of negative punishment: contingent removal from a reinforcing environment/situation.

Timeout guidelines - what makes it 'time OUT'?

Must be from positive reinforcement; deliver whenever the punishable behavior occurs (or one brief warning); end within 5 minutes regardless of behavior.

Negative punishment examples (adults)

Sin taxes, parking fines, sports penalties — effective only if they reduce target behaviors; if not, revise contingencies.

Caveat for parents/teachers

If punishment is overused or noncontingent, you become a generalized conditioned punisher; children behave only under your watch and pair you with fear — prioritize reinforcement.

Simple vs complex contingencies

Simple: If one response → one reinforcer. Complex (schedules): If multiple responses and/or time → reinforcer.

Schedules of reinforcement (definition)

Formal IF→THEN rules specifying how responses and time relate to reinforcer delivery (Ferster & Skinner, 1957).

Ratio vs interval schedules

Ratio: depends on number of responses. Interval: reinforcer available after time passes, then one response produces it.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

A fixed number of responses required (FR 1, FR 2, FR 10 ...). Produces high-rate runs with post-reinforcement pauses (PRPs) that grow with larger ratios.

Variable Ratio (VR)

An unpredictable number of responses on average (VR 36). Produces high, steady responding with minimal PRP; often maintains more behavior than FR; used in games & gambling.

Cumulative record patterns (FR vs VR)

FR: "step-like" due to PRPs; VR: steady slope with little pausing; both end each run with a reinforcer.

Post-reinforcement pause (PRP)

Pause after a reinforcer before next response run; pronounced under high FR; humans often show PRPs as procrastination.

Workplace applications of ratio schedules

Pay-for-performance can reduce bias but needs monitoring to prevent cheating and manage behavior patterns (e.g., PRPs).

Fixed Interval (FI)

First response after a fixed time interval produces the reinforcer; classic "scallop" pattern - PRP then acceleration; responses before interval elapses are wasted.

Variable Interval (VI)

First response after variable time intervals produces the reinforcer; yields moderate, steady "checking" behavior (fishing, quality control, radio call-ins).

Interval schedules and timing

FI patterns diagnose timing: highly efficient (perfect timing) vs inefficient (poor timing) vs scalloped (intermediate).

Applied note - vigilance (TSA example)

If VI too long, misses occur; schedules and even nonhuman observers (pigeons) can be optimized for detection tasks; pigeons show strong visual discrimination.