aphug unit 4 frq

I can describe the terms ‘state’, ‘city state’, and ‘empire’ - with examples. 

State

Definition:
A state is a political unit with a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the ability to make and enforce laws. It is recognized by other states as having sovereignty (independent authority over its affairs).

Example:

• The United States, France, or Japan are all modern examples of states.
  They have clear borders, governments, and are recognized internationally.

City-State

Definition:
A city-state is an independent city that functions as a sovereign state. It controls not just the city itself but also the surrounding territory. City-states were common in the ancient world, though a few still exist today.

Examples:

• Ancient Athens and Sparta in Greece were classic city-states.

• Singapore, Monaco, and Vatican City are modern examples of city-states.

Empire

Definition:
An empire is a large political unit that controls multiple territories or states under a single ruler or government, often established through conquest or colonization. Empires usually include many different cultures and ethnic groups.

Examples:

• The Roman Empire, which ruled over large parts of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East.

• The British Empire, which at its height controlled colonies across every continent.

I can describe differences between a federal and unitary state.

Federal State

Definition:
A federal state divides power between a central (national) government and regional (state or provincial) governments.
Each level of government has authority over certain areas, and regional governments have some independence to make their own laws.

Key Features:

• Power is shared between national and local governments.

• Regional governments can make decisions on some local issues (like education or transportation).

• Designed to balance power and represent large or diverse populations.

Examples:

• United States – Power is divided between the federal government and individual states.

• Germany, Canada, and India are also federal states.

Unitary State

Definition:
A unitary state has one central government that holds almost all political power.
Local governments may exist, but they act mainly to carry out decisions made by the national government and have limited independence.

Key Features:

• Power is centralized in the national government.

• Local governments are usually created or controlled by the national government.

• Works best in smaller or more culturally unified countries.

Examples:

• France, United Kingdom, Japan, and China are unitary states.

I can also describe the concept of an ‘autonomous’ or ‘semi-autonomous’ region.

Autonomous Region

Definition:
An autonomous region is an area within a country that has a high degree of self-government and control over its own affairs.
It is still officially part of the state, but it can make decisions on many local matters such as education, culture, or local laws.

Key Idea:
→ The region has political or cultural independence, often because of distinct ethnic, cultural, or historical identities.

Examples:

• Hong Kong (Special Administrative Region of China) – has its own legal system, currency, and government under the “one country, two systems” principle.

• Greenland (part of the Kingdom of Denmark) – governs most of its internal affairs while Denmark handles defense and foreign policy.

Semi-Autonomous Region

Definition:
A semi-autonomous region has some limited self-rule, but the central government still has significant control over important areas such as defense, foreign policy, or taxation.
Its autonomy is partial, not full.

Example:

• Scotland within the United Kingdom – has its own parliament and can make decisions on education and health, but the UK government controls defense and foreign affairs.

• Nunavut in Canada – has local governance and cultural autonomy for Indigenous peoples but remains under Canadian federal authority.

I can discuss the concept of a ‘nation’ and also ‘nationalism’ (which has a couple of different definitions).

Nation

Definition:
A nation is a group of people who share a common identity, often based on culture, language, history, religion, or ethnicity, and who often have a desire for self-rule or independence.
A nation is more about the people and their shared identity than about political borders.

Examples:

• The French and Japanese are both nations tied to their states.

• The Kurds and Palestinians are nations without their own independent state.

Nationalism

Definition:
Nationalism is a sense of loyalty and devotion to a nation — the belief that people who share a national identity should govern themselves and have their own state.
It can also mean pride in one’s country or support for national unity.

There are two main meanings of nationalism:

1. Nation-building nationalism – a unifying force that brings people together within a state.

2. Separatist nationalism – a dividing force that leads people to seek independence or greater autonomy.

I can identify different types of nationalism.

Type	Description	Example
Civic Nationalism	Based on shared political values, laws, and citizenship rather than ethnicity.	The United States – people are united by democratic ideals.
Ethnic Nationalism	Based on common ancestry, culture, or language; focuses on ethnic identity.	The Serbs in the former Yugoslavia or Japanese nationalism.
Cultural Nationalism	Focuses on shared traditions, heritage, and cultural practices.	The revival of Irish language and culturein Ireland.
Religious Nationalism	Based on shared religious beliefs forming the basis for national identity.	Pakistan, created as a homeland for Muslims in South Asia.
Separatist Nationalism	A group’s desire to break away from a state to form its own nation-state.	Catalonia (Spain) or the Kurds in the Middle East.
Expansionist Nationalism	The belief that one’s nation should expand its territory or influence.	Nazi Germany’s nationalism in the 1930s–40s.

 I can explain how centripetal forces and/or centrifugal forces might produce stability or conflict within a state. I can provide examples from the real world.

Centripetal Forces

Definition:
Centripetal forces are factors that unify and bring stability to a state.
They help keep a country together and strengthen the sense of national unity and identity.

Examples of Centripetal Forces:

• National identity or shared culture → Common language, religion, or history.

  • Example: Japan’s shared language and culture help unify its population.

• Strong institutions and government → Effective leadership and fair laws build trust.

  • Example: Switzerland’s democratic system allows different language groups to coexist peacefully.

• Infrastructure and communication → Good transportation networks and national media connect people across regions.

  • Example: India’s railway system helps unify its diverse population.

• National symbols or events → Flags, anthems, or sports teams create pride and solidarity.

  • Example: The Olympic Games can strengthen national unity within countries.

Result:
Centripetal forces create stability, promote peace, and help maintain a strong national identity.

Centrifugal Forces

Definition:
Centrifugal forces are factors that divide and create conflict or instability within a state.
They can lead to tension, separatism, or even the breakup of a country.

Examples of Centrifugal Forces:

• Ethnic or religious differences → Conflicts between different groups.

  • Example: Nigeria’s divisions among ethnic and religious groups have caused regional tensions.

• Economic inequality → Unequal development between regions can create resentment.

  • Example: Italy’s wealthier north vs. poorer south causes political tension.

• Physical geography → Mountains, deserts, or distance can isolate populations.

  • Example: Indonesia’s thousands of islands make national unity more challenging.

• Weak government or corruption → Lack of trust in leadership can cause unrest.

  • Example: Political corruption in Venezuela has led to protests and instability.

Result:
Centrifugal forces can lead to division, separatist movements, or even civil war if not managed effectively.

 I can describe why Nationalism might be seen as a centripetal force AND as a centrifugal force. I can provide examples to make my ideas clear.

Nationalism as a Centripetal Force

Definition:
Nationalism can act as a centripetal force when it unites people within a state through a shared sense of identity, pride, and loyalty to the nation.
It helps create social cohesion, strengthens national identity, and promotes political stability.

How it Unifies:

• Encourages citizens to work together for the good of their country.

• Promotes a shared identity that reduces internal conflict.

• Builds loyalty to the government and national institutions.

Examples:

• France: Shared French language, culture, and pride in national history help unify the country despite regional differences.

• India: Nationalist pride after independence united diverse linguistic and religious groups under one government.

• United States: Patriotism and national symbols (like the flag or Fourth of July) often strengthen unity, especially during crises.

Nationalism as a Centrifugal Force

Definition:
Nationalism can also be a centrifugal force when different ethnic or cultural groups within a state develop their own nationalist movements that compete with or reject the dominant national identity.
This can lead to conflict, separatism, or the breakup of states.

How it Divides:

• Minority groups may seek independence or greater autonomy.

• Competing national identities can lead to ethnic conflict or civil war.

• Strong nationalism in one region may create resentment or fear in others.

Examples:

• Yugoslavia: Ethnic nationalism among Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks led to the country’s violent breakup in the 1990s.

• Catalonia (Spain): Catalan nationalism drives movements for independence from Spain.

• Sudan: Ethnic and religious nationalism contributed to the separation of South Sudan in 2011.

I can define ‘supranational organization’ and provide examples of these. I can describe why states might form them and want to belong to them. I can also describe why they might be limited in their ability to act / solve problems.

Definition: Supranational Organization

A supranational organization is an alliance of three or more states that work together to achieve common political, economic, military, or cultural goals.
These organizations involve shared decision-making and sometimes require countries to give up a small degree of sovereignty (independence) to cooperate at a regional or global level.

Examples of Supranational Organizations

Organization	Purpose / Focus
United Nations (UN)	Promotes peace, security, and international cooperation.
European Union (EU)	Promotes economic and political integration among European countries (common currency, trade policies).
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)	Military alliance for collective defense among member states.
World Trade Organization (WTO)	Regulates international trade and resolves trade disputes.
African Union (AU)	Encourages unity, peace, and development across Africa.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)	Promotes economic growth and political stability in Southeast Asia.

Why States Form or Join Supranational Organizations

1. Economic Benefits

• Access to larger markets, free trade, and economic growth.

  • Example: EU countries benefit from open borders and a shared currency (the euro).

2. Political Cooperation

• Countries gain a stronger voice in global affairs by working together.

  • Example: Small countries in the UN have more influence collectively than alone.

3. Security and Defense

• Shared defense reduces the threat of war and increases protection.

  • Example: NATO’s principle of collective defense (attack on one = attack on all).

4. Social and Environmental Cooperation

• Joint efforts to solve global challenges like climate change, migration, and human rights.

  • Example: The UN works toward global peacekeeping and humanitarian goals.

Why Supranational Organizations Can Be Limited in Power

1. Sovereignty Conflicts

• States often don’t want to give up control over their own laws or policies.

  • Example: The UK left the EU (Brexit) because many citizens opposed EU control over trade and immigration.

2. Unequal Power or Influence

• Larger or wealthier countries may dominate decisions.

  • Example: In the UN Security Council, five permanent members have veto power.

3. Different National Interests

• Countries may disagree on goals or how to act.

  • Example: NATO members sometimes disagree about military spending or intervention.

4. Bureaucracy and Slow Decision-Making

• With many members, it takes time to reach agreements.

  • Example: The EU struggles to create unified policies because of its 27 members’ diverse priorities.

Summary Table

Aspect	Explanation	Example
Definition	Organization of 3+ states cooperating for shared goals	United Nations, EU
Why Join	Economic, political, security, or environmental cooperation	EU for trade, NATO for defense
Limits	Sovereignty issues, power imbalances, conflicts of interest	Brexit, UN veto power

I can differentiate between nation states, stateless nations, multistate nations, and multinational states.

Nation-State

Definition:
A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to a single nation — meaning most people share the same ethnicity, culture, and national identity.
In a nation-state, the borders of the nation and the state align.

Example:

• Japan – The population is mostly ethnically Japanese, with a strong shared culture and language.

• Iceland – Culturally and linguistically unified, with little ethnic diversity.

Summary: One nation = one state → political and cultural unity.

Stateless Nation

Definition:
A stateless nation is a nation (group with a shared identity) that does not have its own state and is instead spread across multiple states or dominated by another group.

Example:

• Kurds – A large ethnic group spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria without an independent state.

• Palestinians – Seek an independent state but currently live under partial or foreign control.

Summary: Nation without a state → wants self-rule but doesn’t have sovereignty.

Multistate Nation

Definition:
A multistate nation is a nation that stretches across more than one state, with people of the same ethnic group living in multiple countries.

Example:

• Koreans – Share a common culture and history but are divided between North Korea and South Korea.

• Germans – Live in Germany, Austria, and parts of Switzerland.

Summary: One nation = multiple states → cultural unity, political separation.

Multinational State

Definition:
A multinational state is a country that contains two or more nations or ethnic groups that have distinct cultural identities.
Each group may seek some level of self-government or recognition within the state.

Example:

• Russia – Home to over 100 ethnic groups (Russians, Chechens, Tatars, etc.).

• Canada – Includes English-speaking and French-speaking (Québécois) populations.

Summary: Multiple nations = one state → diverse population within shared borders.

I can describe the term multiethnic nation and can discuss reasons why a multi-ethnic national identity may be difficult to achieve and provide examples.

Multiethnic Nation

Definition:
A multiethnic nation is a nation made up of people from multiple ethnic backgrounds who may speak different languages, follow different religions, or have different cultural traditions — but still identify as part of the same nation.

In a multiethnic nation, national identity is meant to unite people across ethnic differences under a shared sense of belonging (such as citizenship, values, or history).

Examples of Multiethnic Nations

• United States: Includes many ethnic groups (White, African American, Hispanic, Asian, Indigenous, etc.) united under shared national ideals like democracy and freedom.

• Brazil: A blend of Indigenous, African, and European ancestry; national identity centers on culture and language rather than ethnicity.

• India: Home to hundreds of ethnic groups and languages; national identity is built around shared history and democratic values.

Why a Multiethnic National Identity Can Be Difficult to Achieve

1. Ethnic Tensions and Historical Divisions

• Deep-rooted conflicts or discrimination can make it hard for groups to feel equally represented.

  • Example: In Nigeria, long-standing ethnic rivalries (Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo) have led to political instability.

2. Unequal Political or Economic Power

• If one group dominates government or wealth, others may feel excluded.

  • Example: Sri Lanka experienced tension between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamils, leading to decades of civil war.

3. Language and Cultural Barriers

• Different languages, religions, and traditions can weaken a shared sense of national unity.

  • Example: Belgium struggles with division between Dutch-speaking Flanders and French-speaking Wallonia.

4. Colonial or Artificial Borders

• Many states in Africa and the Middle East were drawn without regard for ethnic divisions, making unity difficult.

  • Example: Sudan split into Sudan and South Sudan in 2011 due to ethnic and religious conflicts.

5. Competing National Identities

• People may feel more loyal to their ethnic group than to the state.

  • Example: Ethnic Russians in Ukraine sometimes identify more with Russia than with Ukraine.

When Multiethnic National Identity Works Well

It can succeed when there is:

• Equal representation in government and economy.

• Shared civic values (e.g., democracy, freedom, equality).

• Strong national symbols and education systems promoting unity.

  • Example: The United States promotes “E pluribus unum” — “Out of many, one.”

Summary Table

Concept	Definition	Challenge	Example
Multiethnic Nation	A nation made up of multiple ethnic groups who share a common national identity	Ethnic divisions, inequality, cultural differences	U.S., India, Brazil
Difficulty	Building shared identity despite differences	Discrimination, political domination, colonial borders	Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Belgium

 I can discuss the concept of ‘devolution’ and how this might happen in different ways and at different scales. I can provide real world examples. I can provide examples of places where devolution has occurred, or where it might occur in the future. 

Definition: Devolution

Devolution is the transfer of power from a central (national) government to regional or local governments within a state.

It often happens when regions want more autonomy to govern themselves — due to differences in culture, ethnicity, language, economics, or geography.
Devolution can strengthen unity (by giving groups a voice) or lead to fragmentation (if regions push for independence).

How Devolution Can Occur

Devolution can happen in different ways and at different scales — from small regional powers to full independence movements.

1. Ethnocultural Forces

• When distinct ethnic, linguistic, or religious groups demand more self-rule or independence.

• Driven by a sense of national identity separate from the rest of the state.

Examples:

• Scotland (United Kingdom): Has its own parliament and control over education and health, though still part of the UK.

• Catalonia (Spain): Seeks independence due to unique language and culture.

• Quebec (Canada): French-speaking region with strong cultural identity; has held referendums on independence.

2. Economic Forces

• When regions with economic differences (wealthy or poor) feel unfairly treated by the central government.

• Wealthier regions may not want to share resources; poorer regions may feel neglected.

Examples:

• Italy: The wealthy north (Lombardy) has pushed for more control over its taxes and resources.

• Belgium: Economic differences between Flanders (rich) and Wallonia (poorer) contribute to regional tensions.

3. Spatial (Geographic) Forces

• When parts of a state are physically distant or separated from the core, making centralized control harder.

Examples:

• Indonesia: Thousands of islands create distance and cultural diversity; regions like Aceh have special autonomy.

• Russia: Distant regions like Chechnya or Siberia have sought independence or more self-rule.

Devolution at Different Scales

Scale	Description	Example
Regional	Power transferred to regions within a state	Scotland’s parliament (UK), Quebec’s autonomy (Canada)
Local	Cities or local governments gain authority	U.S. states or cities managing their own education and health policies
National → Independence	Region gains full independence	South Sudan (from Sudan, 2011); breakup of Yugoslavia (1990s)

Real-World Examples of Devolution

Place	Type of Devolution	Explanation
United Kingdom	Political	Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have their own parliaments/assemblies.
Spain (Catalonia, Basque Country)	Ethnocultural	Regions with unique languages and cultures demand independence.
Canada (Quebec)	Cultural & Political	French-speaking Quebec has distinct legal and educational systems.
Belgium	Economic & Linguistic	Divisions between Flemish (Dutch-speaking) and Walloon (French-speaking) regions.
Nigeria	Ethnic	Regional governments created to reduce ethnic conflict.
Sudan → South Sudan (2011)	Complete Devolution	Ethnic and religious conflict led to South Sudan’s independence.

Places Where Devolution Might Occur in the Future

• Kurdistan Region – Kurds in Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran still seek independence.

• Catalonia (Spain) – Ongoing push for independence after failed 2017 referendum.

• Scotland (UK) – May hold another referendum to leave the United Kingdom.

• Tibet or Xinjiang (China) – Ethnic tensions could spark calls for greater autonomy.

Summary Table

Force Type	What Causes It	Example
Ethnocultural	Cultural or linguistic differences	Scotland, Catalonia
Economic	Unequal wealth or resources	Italy’s north vs. south
Spatial	Geographic distance or isolation	Indonesia, Russia

I can describe and provide examples of political boundary types (relic, geometric, superimposed, antecedent, subsequent, consequent, open, and militarized).

Political Boundaries

A political boundary is a line that divides one state from another or separates internal administrative regions within a state. Boundaries can be created in different ways and have different functions.

Types of Political Boundaries1. Relic Boundary

• Definition: A boundary that no longer functions as an official border but still has cultural or historical significance.

• Example: The Berlin Wall – no longer a barrier, but it marks historical division between East and West Berlin.

• Example: Old boundaries between East and West Germany before reunification.

2. Geometric Boundary

• Definition: A boundary drawn using straight lines, often without regard to physical or cultural features.

• Example: The U.S.–Canada border along the 49th parallel.

• Example: Many boundaries in Africa were drawn as straight lines during European colonization.

3. Superimposed Boundary

• Definition: A boundary imposed by external powers or colonizers, ignoring existing cultural, ethnic, or political divisions.

• Example: Most African borders drawn during European colonization.

• Example: The Korean Peninsula boundary imposed after WWII.

4. Antecedent Boundary

• Definition: A boundary established before the cultural landscape developed in the area.

• Example: Malaysia and Indonesia (on Borneo) — border existed before significant population settlement.

• Example: Many U.S. state boundaries in the west.

5. Subsequent Boundary

• Definition: A boundary drawn after a cultural landscape has developed, often to accommodate cultural, ethnic, or linguistic differences.

• Example: The boundary between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

• Example: India and Pakistan border after partition in 1947.

6. Consequent Boundary

• Definition: A type of subsequent boundary that takes into account existing cultural, ethnic, linguistic, or religious differences.

• Example: India-Pakistan border – created to separate Hindus and Muslims.

• Example: Belgium – language differences (Flemish vs. French) influenced internal boundaries.

7. Open Boundary

• Definition: A boundary that allows free movement of people and goods.

• Example: European Union (Schengen Area) – citizens can travel across borders without passports.

• Example: Benelux countries – open borders for trade and travel.

8. Militarized Boundary

• Definition: A boundary that is heavily fortified and defended, often a zone of conflict or tension.

• Example: North Korea–South Korea (DMZ) – highly militarized and strictly controlled.

• Example: India–Pakistan (Kashmir region) – heavily patrolled and fortified.

Summary Table

Boundary Type	Definition	Example
Relic	No longer official but historically/culturally significant	Berlin Wall, old East/West Germany border
Geometric	Straight-line boundary ignoring physical/cultural features	U.S.–Canada (49th parallel), many African borders
Superimposed	Imposed by external powers	African colonial borders, Korean Peninsula
Antecedent	Existed before cultural development	Malaysia–Indonesia (Borneo), U.S. western states
Subsequent	Drawn after cultural landscape developed	Northern Ireland–Ireland, India–Pakistan partition
Consequent	Accounts for cultural/ethnic differences	India-Pakistan border, Belgium internal divisions
Open	Allows free movement	EU Schengen Area, Benelux countries
Militarized	Heavily fortified or controlled	North–South Korea DMZ, India–Pakistan (Kashmir)

I can explain how the Berlin Conference influenced the political boundaries of African states. I can describe why this resulted in many multinational states. I can discuss possible border conflicts, especially those that may be associated with the legacy of superimposed boundaries in Africa.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

Definition:
The Berlin Conference was a meeting of European powers to divide Africa into colonies without consulting African people. The goal was to prevent conflict among European countries while claiming African territory.

Key Result:

• European powers drew borders that ignored existing ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups.

• Many boundaries were straight lines or geometric, not based on African cultural or geographic realities.

Impact on African Political Boundaries

1. Creation of Superimposed Boundaries

   • Most African borders today are superimposed, meaning they were imposed by outsiders.

   • These boundaries often split ethnic groups or combined rival groups into the same state.

   • Example: The Hausa and Fulani people in Nigeria are split across borders.

2. Multinational States

   • Because multiple ethnic groups were forced into single countries, many African states became multinational, containing diverse cultures and groups.

   • Example: Nigeria, Sudan, and DR Congo contain dozens of ethnic groups under one government.

Border Conflicts Associated with Superimposed Boundaries

1. Ethnic Tensions and Civil Wars

   • Groups forced together often compete for political power, land, or resources.

   • Example: Sudan and South Sudan – conflict between Muslim north and Christian/animist south led to secession of South Sudan in 2011.

2. Cross-Border Conflicts

   • Ethnic groups divided by borders may seek autonomy or reunification.

   • Example: The Somali people live in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Kenya, causing cross-border tension.

3. Economic Disputes

   • Borders split access to resources, causing conflict over land, water, or minerals.

   • Example: Nigeria and Cameroon dispute over the Bakassi Peninsula (oil-rich area).

Summary Table

Concept	Explanation	Example
Berlin Conference	European powers divided Africa without consulting locals	Creation of modern African borders
Superimposed Boundaries	Boundaries imposed ignoring ethnic/cultural realities	Most African countries
Multinational States	Single state with multiple ethnic groups	Nigeria, Sudan, DR Congo
Border Conflicts	Tensions due to ethnic division or resource disputes	Sudan/South Sudan, Somalia/Ethiopia/Kenya, Nigeria/Cameroon

I can identify several former Soviet Union states that are now independent.

Former Soviet Union States

Definition:
The Soviet Union (USSR) was a federation of socialist republics that collapsed in 1991, leading to the independence of multiple states.

Examples of Independent States:

• Russia

• Ukraine

• Belarus

• Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (Baltic states)

• Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan (Central Asia)

• Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan (Caucasus region)

Impact:
These countries gained sovereignty, but many still face political, economic, and ethnic challenges from the Soviet legacy.

I can describe the concept of a Shatterbelt and why this term might relate to the Cold War.

Shatterbelt

Definition:
A shatterbelt is a region caught between stronger external powers, where internal divisions (ethnic, cultural, or political) make it prone to conflict and instability.

Relation to the Cold War:

• During the Cold War, many shatterbelts were torn between the influence of the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

• Superpower competition exacerbated regional tensions and sometimes led to proxy wars.

Examples:

• Eastern Europe – Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary were under Soviet influence but had diverse populations and political tension.

• Korea – divided into North and South due to Cold War dynamics.

• Middle East – multiple ethnic and religious groups influenced by U.S. and Soviet interests.

I can describe how Balkanization is a special type of devolution and why this term relates to Yugoslavia.

Balkanization

Definition:
Balkanization is a special type of devolution in which a state breaks into smaller, often ethnically-based, hostile units.
The term comes from the Balkan Peninsula in Southeast Europe, known for centuries of conflict.

Why it relates to Yugoslavia:

• Yugoslavia was a multinational state containing Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Slovenes, Macedonians, and Montenegrins.

• After the death of Tito and weakening central authority, ethnic tensions led to violent breakup in the 1990s.

• Countries that emerged: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia.

Other Examples:

• Sudan → South Sudan (2011) – split along ethnic and religious lines.

• Czechoslovakia → Czech Republic and Slovakia (peaceful example of Balkanization).

I can describe the meaning of ethnic cleansing and genocide, and explain why these have often happen in newly formed states and why they relate to certain types of nationalism.

Ethnic Cleansing

Definition:
Ethnic cleansing is the forced removal or expulsion of a particular ethnic, religious, or cultural group from a territory, often using violence or intimidation.

Key Points:

• The goal is to make a region ethnically homogeneous.

• Often occurs during wars, state collapse, or civil conflict.

Examples:

• Bosnia (1990s): Serb forces expelled Bosniaks from parts of Bosnia during the breakup of Yugoslavia.

• Rohingya in Myanmar: Military campaigns forced the Muslim Rohingya minority to flee Rakhine State.

Genocide

Definition:
Genocide is the deliberate and systematic killing of a large group of people, usually targeting an ethnic, religious, or national group.

Key Points:

• Often linked to extreme nationalist ideologies.

• Seeks to eliminate the existence of a group, not just remove them from a region.

Examples:

• Rwandan Genocide (1994): Hutu extremists killed approximately 800,000 Tutsis.

• Holocaust (1940s): Nazis targeted Jews and other groups for extermination.

Why Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide Often Happen in Newly Formed States

1. Weak Central Authority

   • New states may lack strong government or law enforcement to manage ethnic tensions.

   • Example: Yugoslavia’s breakup in the 1990s left weak central control, leading to ethnic conflict.

2. Competing Nationalisms

   • Different groups may promote ethnic nationalism rather than civic nationalism, prioritizing their own group over the state.

   • Example: Serbian nationalism in Bosnia sought to unify Serbs at the expense of other groups.

3. Desire for Homogeneity

   • Leaders may attempt to create ethnically “pure” regions to consolidate power.

   • Often tied to Balkanization or state fragmentation.

Connection to Nationalism

• Ethnic Nationalism: Focus on one ethnic group can drive policies of exclusion or violence.

• Civic Nationalism: Inclusive nationalism tends to reduce the likelihood of ethnic cleansing or genocide.

Example:

• Yugoslavia (1990s) → Ethnic nationalism led to ethnic cleansing and genocide.

• United States (multiethnic) → Civic nationalism promotes inclusion rather than targeting groups.

Summary Table

Term	Definition	Example	Connection to Nationalism / New States
Ethnic Cleansing	Forced removal of an ethnic/religious group	Bosniaks expelled by Serbs in Bosnia	Happens when ethnic nationalism rises in weak states
Genocide	Systematic killing of a group	Rwandan Genocide, Holocaust	Linked to extreme ethnic nationalism, often in newly formed or unstable states

I can explain maritime boundaries associated with UCLOS (internal, territorial, contiguous, and exclusive economic zones). I can describe the South China Sea conflict, how this relates to UNCLOS, and why states might be worried about this conflict.

Maritime Boundaries & UNCLOS

Definition:
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982) establishes rules for how countries define maritime zones and control the ocean around their coasts.

Types of Maritime Zones

Zone	Distance from Coast	Rights / Description
Internal Waters	Within the coast or baseline	Fully under state sovereignty; foreign vessels have no right of passage
Territorial Sea	Up to 12 nautical miles	State has sovereignty; foreign ships may pass but must follow rules
Contiguous Zone	12–24 nautical miles	State can enforce laws on customs, immigration, sanitation
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)	Up to 200 nautical miles	State has exclusive rights to natural resources (fishing, oil, gas) but cannot restrict passage of foreign ships

South China Sea Conflict

Overview:
The South China Sea is a strategically important and resource-rich region, claimed in whole or in part by several countries, including:

• China

• Philippines

• Vietnam

• Malaysia

• Brunei

Issues:

• China claims almost the entire sea using the “Nine-Dash Line,” which conflicts with UNCLOS rules.

• Other countries claim parts of the sea within their EEZs (200 nautical miles from their coast).

• The area is important for:

  • Shipping routes (trillions of dollars in trade pass through annually)

  • Fishing grounds

  • Potential oil and gas reserves

Relation to UNCLOS:

• UNCLOS gives countries rights up to 200 nautical miles (EEZ).

• China’s expansive claim goes beyond UNCLOS limits, creating disputes with neighboring states.

Why States Are Concerned:

• Economic: Loss of access to fishing, oil, and gas.

• Security: Militarization of islands by China threatens regional stability.

• Sovereignty: Countries worry about challenges to their internationally recognized maritime boundaries.