Bio 1615 Lab Final

Compound light microscope

When to use: slides, microscopic things

Ocular magnification: 10x

Objectives: 4x,10x, 40x,

Object orientation: inverted and upside down

Stereo microscope (dissecting)

When to use: things you can see with the naked eye

Ocular magnification: 10x

Objectives: 0.8-3.5x

Object orientation: normal does not change

Total magnification equation

Ocular (eyepiece) magnification x objective magnification

Steps of the scientific method

1. Recognize a problem

2. Search the literature

3. Formulate your hypothesis

4. Conduct and experiment

5. Organize your data

6. Accept, reject, or modify

Guess

The lowest level of certainty, no information upon which to base the guess

Estimate/ Hypothesis

An educated guess in which some research has been conducted, either supported or not supported by experimentation and evidence but are NOT PROVEN

Theory

An explanation in nature that is supported by overwhelming evidence that has yet to be refuted

Law

Similar to theory, but is explained with mathematics.

Cricket chirp experiment outcome

The lower the temperature, less crickets chirping frequency

Cricket chirp experiment DV, IV, Control

IV: temperature

DV: chirps

CONTROL: the environment and species stay the same

Monomers are building blocks that make up____

Polymers

Protein; amino acids

Carbohydrates; sugar

Lipids; fatty acids and glycerol

Hydrogen bonds

Formed between butogen based, so hydrogen hints hold the two strands of DNA together in the center

Covalent bonds

Formed between nucleotides themselves, hold down together each sugar phosphate backbone of DNA, on outside

Polymerase chain reaction

Discovered by Dr. kary Mullís, a process used to build up polymers; in this case the polymer being dna

Denaturation

Heated to break the hydrogen bonds

DNA synthesis/ Elongation

Taq polymerase adds nucleotides to the DNA strands

What is the end product of PCR

Many copies of the target DNA

Domain bacteria/ archea

Prokaryotic, unicellular or colonial, have cell walls

Kingdom Protista

Eukaryotic, unicellular or colonial, some have cell walls, animal and plant like

Kingdom Fungi

Eukaryotic, mostly multicellular, have cell walls, photosynthetic

Kingdom Anamelia

Eukaryotic, multicellular, do not have cell walls

Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Protista

Mixed green algae;

Mixed Diatoms

Llilium ovary

Mga: unicelular, colonial filaments that are green

MD: buzzard shapes and sizes

LO: contains reproductive cells called ovules, arranged in parts of three

What is diffusion?

Diffusion is the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

What is osmosis?

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration.

Molasses Osmometer Experiment

Due to osmosis the water went into the molasses tube increasing the volume

Hypotonic animal cells

Lyses and may explode

Isotonic Animal Cells

Normal

Hypertonic Animal cells

may cause an animal cell to shrivel or crenate

Factors that Affect Diffusion and Osmosis

● Solute concentration: water moves from areas of low solute concentration to
areas of high solute concentration.
● Temperature: the higher the temperature, the faster molecules move.
● Molecular weight: molecules with a higher molecular weight take longer to
diffuse.
● State of matter: molecules move fastest in a gas, slower in a liquid, and slowest
in a solid.
48

Enzyme Baiscs

Enzymes help lower the activation energy level Enzymes hold the reactants (also called
substrates) in such a way, that it takes less energy to turn those reactants into products.

Denaturation in Enzymes

Enzymes are also specific about the temperature and pH at which they are active.
Temperature and pH affect the bonds that maintain the shape of proteins. Changes in
temperature and pH may cause permanent changes to these bonds, thereby changing
the shape of the protein, a process called denaturation. The result is a non-functional
protein. Each enzyme has a different range of temperature and pH values in which it
works best.

jell-o has gelatin, what kind of macromolecule is gelatin? (look it up if needed)

Protein

If Bromelain breaks down gelatin, is it a protease, a carbohydrase or lipase?

Protease

Lab 6 Concentration of catalase

More enzyme means faster rate reaction

Celular respiration and ATP

Both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration harvest energy using the processes of
glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain
(oxidative phosphorylation); thereby, both aerobic and anaerobic respiration produce
about 30+ ATP respectively.

Citric acid Cycle

Glycolysis, Peruvate acid, electron transport chain

Fermentation

an anerobic process that is not part
of cellular respiration. Some microorganisms such as
bacteria, yeast and molds obtain their energy
through fermentation. This process
involves glycolysis, in which
only 2 ATP are produced, as
well as steps to regenerate the
electron carrier NAD+

Alcoholic Fermentation

the resulting pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to ethanol.
Yeast and many bacteria carry out alcohol fermentation in anaerobic conditions.

NADP+ and NADPH colors

When the dye is oxidized
(NADP+), it is blue. When reduced (NADPH), however, it turns colorless.

Light reactions

Metabolic pathway that is responsible
for absorbing light energy and
converting it into ATP and NADPH

Chloroplast

Organelle where the light reactions of
photosynthesis take place

NADPH

Produced by Photosystem I and its
associated electron transport chain

ATP

Produced by Photosystem II and its
associated electron transport chain

ATP AND NADPH

Final products of the light reactions
used during the Calvin Cycle

Why was there no photosynthetic activity in the BOILED cuvette?

It was denatured

Mitosis Phases of the Cell Cycle

Mitosis: Division of the nucleus

Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm and organelles are allocated to each cell.

G1: Cellular contents excluding chromosomes are duplicated

S: Each of the 46 chromosomes are duplicated by the cell

G2: The cells checks each duplication for errors making any needed repairs

Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase under a microscop

Paramecium conjugation
(Kingdom Protista)

Mitosis

Is the process asexual or sexual?
How many daughter cells produced?
Are the daughter cells haploid or diploid?
Are daughter cells genetically identical to the
parent? (Y/N)
Number of cell divisions
Involves separation of sister chromatids (Y/N)
Involves separation of homologous chromosomes
(Y/N)

Asexual

2

diploid

Yes

1

Yes

No

Meiosis

Is the process asexual or sexual?
How many daughter cells produced?
Are the daughter cells haploid or diploid?
Are daughter cells genetically identical to the
parent? (Y/N)
Number of cell divisions
Involves separation of sister chromatids (Y/N)
Involves separation of homologous chromosomes
(Y/N)

Sexual

4

Haploid

No

2

Yes

Yes

Gel electrophoresis tasters

tt: non-taster

Tt: taster

TT: taster

Mendels Law of Segregation/ Dominance

Mendel's Law of Segregation states that during the formation of gametes (sex cells), the alleles for a trait separate so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

phenotypic and genotypic ratios

Phenotypic: 3 dominant, 1 recessive

Genotypic: 1:2:1

Dihybrid cross Genotypic ratios

9:3:3:1

Transcription

The specific section of
DNA that codes for that gene unzips, breaking the hydrogen bonds between the
nitrogen bases in the DNA molecule. Using the DNA bases as a template, an enzyme
called RNA polymerase builds an mRNA transcript. This mRNA transcript is similar to
the DNA strand, except it is single stranded, has ribose sugar, and has Uracil bases in
place of Thymine.

Translation

which occurs at the ribosome. The
ribosome “reads” the mRNA strand three bases
at a time (codon). A transfer RNA (tRNA) brings
the amino acid that corresponds to that codon,
using its anticodon to bind to the mRNA strand.
The amino acid is handed off, the tRNA leaves,
and the process repeats. The resulting protein
can then be used by the cell.

E-Coli and pGLO

In this experiment, your E. coli will take up a
manufactured plasmid as shown to the right,
named the pGLO plasmid. This plasmid contains a gene that codes for Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP). This protein is naturally found in the jellyfish, Aequorea victoria, giving this organism bioluminescence. A requirement for this gene to be transcribed is the sugar, arabinose, which acts as a promoter for the GFP gene. Your E. coli will only glow when arabinose is present on the bacterial plate

If there are any genetically transformed bacterial cells, on which plate(s) would
they most likely be found?

The last plate

On which plate(s) would you find bacteria most like the original non-transformed
E. coli found on the starter plates?

The first plate

Hardy Weinberg Equillibrium

1. There are no mutations in the population.
2. There is no genetic drift (the population must be large enough that a random
event will not change allele and genotype frequencies).
3. There is no gene flow between populations (no immigration and no emigration).
4. There is no natural selection (individuals survive equally well in the population).
5. Mating is completely random

p + q = 1

p = frequency of the dominant
allele (A)
q= frequency of the recessive
allele (a)

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

p2 = frequency of the homozygous
dominant genotype (AA)
2pq = frequency of the heterozygous
genotype (Aa)
q2 = frequency of the homozygous
recessive genotype (aa)

Which are the most closely related

D and E

Which are least closely related

A and E

Which have most recently breaded with each other

D and E

Which share the most DNA

D and E