ap psych, 2.1-2.2

cognition

all forms of knowing & awareness, such as perceiving, conceiving, etc.

sensation

the process of experience of perceiving through the senses

perception

the process of becoming aware through the senses

top-down processing

the brain processing info using prior knowledge, such as past experiences, expectations, etc

bottom-up processing

the brain processing info from raw sensory input

schema

a mental framework/concept that helps one organize & interpret info based on past experiences

perceptual set

a mental tendency/expectation that makes one perceive thing in a certain way

selective attention

focusing attention on one thing, while ignoring others around

divided attention

focusing attention to multiple things/stimuli at once

cocktail party effect

psychological phenomenon where one has the ability to focus on specific stimulus, such as a friend’s voice, while ignoring other stimuli, like other voices in a noisy crowd

gestalt

a theory in the field of perception, the fundamental rules our mind uses to organize sensory info, based on principles.

proximity

gestalt principle, we group objects that are close together as belonging to the same group

ex: dots close together look like one group

closure

gestalt principle, we fill in gaps to see a complete picture

ex: a 7/8 semicircle is shown, and we see a circle

similarity

gestalt principle, we group things that look alike.

ex: red dots in one group, blues in another 

figure ground

gestalt principle, we separate the objects (figures) from their surroundings (ground)

inattentional blindness

when you fail to notice something in your visual field because your attention is focused on other stimuli

ex: gorilla experiment

change blindness

when you fail to notice change in an environment

ex: a person talking to someone and giving them directions doesn’t know the person has swapped or left

depth perception

the ability to use 3D to judge depth/distance

ex: visual cliff baby experiments

monocular cue

a depth cue that is available to either eye, used to perceive distance

binocular depth cues

depth cues that depend on both eyes working together to percieve distance 

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing the retinal images from each eye and computing the distance between the two

ex:

convergence

when eyes turned inward to focus on something close, the more your eyes are turned in the closer the object is perceived.

interposition

when one object overlaps another, the object being covered is perceived as being farther away

relative clarity

objects that appear clearer and sharper. SHARPNESS/CLARITY

ex: a mountain and a tree, you see detail in the tree

relative size

if two objects are the same size, the one that is smaller on the retina is farther away.

ex: 2 ppl on canoes in a photo, the person perceived larger is closer to the camera

texture gradient

when a surface is detailed, the details are distinct when closer, but blend together and become less distinct farther away. DETAIL/DISTINCTION

ex: blade of grass, grass field

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge, they become one as they recede into distance

ex: railroad tracks, they are straight but appears horizontal

perceptual constancy

percieving objects as staying the same even when sensory image changes

ex: a car approaching from a distance appears smaller, but as it gets closer, we perceive it as the same size we know it to be, rather than thinking it is growing large (ex of size constancy)

apparent movement

something appears to move altough it is not moving

ex: phi phenomenon

concept

mental category we use to group things together

prototype

most typical example of something of a concept, can be modified using assimilation and accommodation

algorithm

step-by-step logical procedure that guarantees a correct solution if followed properly

ex: to find lost keys at a beach, systematically search every in² of the beach until you find it

heuristic

mental shortcut that helps you solve problems quickly, does not guarantee a correct solution

ex: to find lost keys at a beach, look in likely spots

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on how well it matches our mental prototype

ex: seeing a skinny slim man who likes poetry, are they rather a ivy league professor or a truck driver? we guess the former even though statistically speaking there are far more truck drivers, however it does not fit our prototype

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on how readily available they come to mind

ex: given the question, who kills more americans more year, terrorists or toddlers, we suggest terrorists due to media portrayal leading it into our heads. however, this is not true statistically

mental set

sticking to old patterns that have worked in the past even if they do not work now

priming

a phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus affects/influences how one responds to a subsequent related stimulus

framing

presentation of info impacts our perception of it

gambler’s fallacy

a cognitive bias that adheres to the ideas that if something hasn’t happened recently it will soon

sunk-cost fallacy

a cognitive bias that makes you stay in a situation despite losing resources/benefit

ex: continuing watching a show thats boring you now, just because you started it

executive function

mental skills that help us learn, work, and manage daily life, including working memory, etc.

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions, required for creativity

convergent thinking

narrowing down the solutions to the single best option

functional fixedness

a cognitive bias, the inability to see objects past their usual purpose