US History 1 Unit 3

Unit 3

Elections of 1788 (and Presidential Election)

George Washington won unanimously over John Adams who became vice president with 10 - 13 states participating

Bill of Rights Purpose

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, added in 1791, designed to protect individual liberties and limit government power by clearly defining citizens' rights

Judiciary Act of 1789

A law passed by Congress establishing the structure and authority of the federal court system, including the creation of the Supreme Court, federal district courts, circuit courts, and the position of Attorney General

Bank of the United States Purpose and Effects

Purpose:
Created in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton to stabilize the American economy, handle government funds, manage national debt, and provide credit for economic growth.

Effects:
Established financial stability, strengthened federal government power, and led to debates about federal versus state authority, contributing to the formation of political parties.

The Whiskey Rebellion Cause and Effects

Cause:
Farmers in western Pennsylvania protested and rebelled against a federal excise tax on whiskey, viewing it as unfair and economically harmful.

Effects:
President Washington decisively crushed the rebellion, demonstrating the strength of the new federal government and its willingness to enforce federal laws, thereby affirming federal authority.

Fugitive Slave Law of 1793

A federal law that allowed slaveholders to recover runaway slaves even if they had fled into free states, imposing legal penalties on anyone assisting escaped slaves, thereby increasing tensions over slavery between North and South

Ona Judge

An enslaved woman owned by George and Martha Washington who famously escaped from the President’s household in Philadelphia in 1796. Despite efforts by Washington to recapture her, Judge remained free, becoming a symbol of resistance against slavery.

Causes of the French Revolution and American Reactions

• Causes:

  • Financial crisis and heavy taxation

  • Social inequality (estates system)

  • Influence from Enlightenment ideas and the American Revolution

  • Weak leadership from King Louis XVI

• American Reactions:

  • Initially supportive, seeing it as inspired by American ideals

  • Later divided, with Federalists fearing chaos and violence, while Democratic-Republicans continued to sympathize with revolutionary goals

Edmond Genet and the Genet Affair

Edmond Genet was a French diplomat sent to the U.S. in 1793 who openly recruited Americans to support France's war against Britain. His actions challenged U.S. neutrality, angered President Washington, and intensified political divisions in America.

Causes of the Haitian Revolution and American Reactions

• Causes:

  • Brutal treatment of enslaved people in French-controlled Saint-Domingue (Haiti).

  • Inspiration from Enlightenment ideals and the American and French revolutions.

  • Desire among enslaved populations for freedom and equality.

• American Reactions:

  • Fear among southern slaveholders of inspiring similar slave uprisings.

  • Mixed political responses; Federalists cautiously supported trade relations, while southern Democratic-Republicans strongly opposed recognizing Haiti, fearing encouragement of rebellion in the U.S.

Toussaint Louverture

A former enslaved man who became the leader of the Haitian Revolution, successfully leading enslaved people in their fight against French colonial rule, laying the foundations for Haiti’s independence, and becoming a global symbol of freedom and anti-slavery resistance.

Pinckney’s Treaty

A treaty between the U.S. and Spain that granted Americans navigation rights on the Mississippi River, established the southern U.S. boundary at the 31st parallel, and allowed duty-free trade through the port of New Orleans, greatly benefiting American commerce and westward expansion.

Jay’s Treaty

A treaty negotiated by John Jay between the U.S. and Britain, intended to resolve issues left from the Revolutionary War. It required Britain to withdraw from forts in the Northwest Territory and granted limited trading rights but failed to stop British impressment of American sailors. It was highly controversial and deepened political divisions in America.

Political Differences between Democratic-Republicans and Federalists

• Federalists:

  • Led by Alexander Hamilton.

  • Supported a strong federal government.

  • Favored commerce, industry, and a national bank.

  • Pro-British in foreign policy.

  • Supported by merchants, urban elites, and northern states.

• Democratic-Republicans:

  • Led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.

  • Supported states’ rights and limited federal power.

  • Favored agriculture and opposed the national bank.

  • Pro-French in foreign policy.

  • Supported by farmers, southern and western states, and common citizens.

Define Republican Motherhood

An early American belief that women had the important role of raising and educating virtuous, informed citizens to sustain the republic. It emphasized women’s influence in the home as moral guides and supporters of civic responsibility, even though they lacked political rights.

XYZ Affair

A diplomatic scandal in which French agents (referred to as X, Y, and Z) demanded bribes from American diplomats to begin negotiations. The incident angered Americans, led to calls for war with France, and sparked the undeclared Quasi-War, increasing tensions between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans.

Quasi War- Causes and Effects

• Causes:

  • The XYZ Affair, where French officials demanded bribes from U.S. diplomats.

  • French seizure of American ships during its conflict with Britain.

  • Growing tensions over U.S. neutrality in European wars.

• Effects:

  • An undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France, mainly in the Caribbean.

  • Strengthening of the U.S. Navy.

  • Ended with the Convention of 1800, which restored peace.

  • Increased political division at home and helped justify the Alien and Sedition Acts.

John Adams and Haitian Diplomacy

As president, John Adams supported the Haitian Revolution by sending supplies and recognizing Toussaint Louverture’s leadership to weaken French power in the Caribbean. His administration established friendly trade relations with Haiti, contrasting sharply with Thomas Jefferson’s later refusal to recognize Haitian independence.

Gabriel’s Rebellion

A planned slave revolt in Richmond, Virginia, led by a literate enslaved blacksmith named Gabriel Prosser. The goal was to seize control of the city and demand the end of slavery, but the plan was discovered and suppressed before it began. Gabriel and several others were captured and executed, leading to harsher slave laws and increased fear of rebellion in the South.

Alien and Sedition Acts (What it did and why it was passed)

• What It Did:

  • Allowed the president to deport non-citizens deemed dangerous (Alien Acts).

  • Extended the residency requirement for citizenship from 5 to 14 years.

  • Made it a crime to publish false or critical statements about the federal government (Sedition Act).

• Why It Was Passed:

  • Passed by Federalists during rising tensions with France (Quasi-War).

  • Intended to suppress opposition from Democratic-Republicans and silence critics of President John Adams' administration.

  • Reflected fears of foreign influence and internal dissent

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Political statements written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts. They argued that states had the right to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, introducing the idea of states’ rights and challenging federal authority.

Election of 1800 (Issues and Outcome)

• Issues:

  • Alien and Sedition Acts: Federalist laws that restricted speech and targeted immigrants, leading to widespread opposition.

  • Federal Power vs. States’ Rights: Federalists favored a strong central government, while Democratic-Republicans advocated for states' rights and limited federal authority.

  • Foreign Policy: Federalists leaned toward Britain; Democratic-Republicans supported France, reflecting tensions from the French Revolution.

  • Military Expansion: Federalists' push to expand the army and navy raised fears of militarization among Democratic-Republicans.​The Library of Congress+3US History+3Monticello+3

• Outcome:

  • Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both Democratic-Republicans, received 73 electoral votes, resulting in a tie.

  • The House of Representatives broke the tie after 36 ballots, electing Jefferson as president and Burr as vice president.

  • This peaceful transfer of power between rival parties was unprecedented and led to the 12th Amendment, mandating separate electoral votes for president and vice president.

Judiciary Act of 1801

A law passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress that reorganized the federal court system and created new judgeships, which President John Adams filled with Federalist appointees (known as the “Midnight Judges”). It was an attempt to maintain Federalist influence in the judiciary before Thomas Jefferson took office.

Define Jeffersonianism

A political philosophy based on the ideas of Thomas Jefferson, emphasizing limited federal government, states’ rights, an agrarian (farming-based) economy, individual liberty, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution. It valued the common farmer as the backbone of democracy.

Marbury v. Madison (1803) and John Marshall

• Marbury v. Madison:
  A landmark Supreme Court case in which the Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall, ruled that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. This case established the principle of judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

• John Marshall:
  As Chief Justice, Marshall strengthened the federal government and the judiciary. His ruling in Marbury v. Madison greatly increased the power of the Supreme Court and set the foundation for its role in American government.

Tripoli-Barbary War

A conflict between the United States and the Barbary State of Tripoli (in North Africa) over American refusal to continue paying tribute for protection from pirate attacks on U.S. ships. President Thomas Jefferson sent the Navy to defend American interests. The war ended with a peace treaty, demonstrating the U.S. commitment to protecting its trade and asserting its naval power.

Napoleon’s Goals for Europe and the Americas

• Europe:
  Napoleon aimed to build a vast European empire under French control, spread revolutionary ideals, and dominate continental politics and economics through military conquest and strategic alliances.

• Americas:
  Initially, he sought to rebuild the French empire in the Americas, using Saint-Domingue (Haiti) as a base and reclaiming territory like Louisiana. However, after the failure to suppress the Haitian Revolution, he abandoned these plans and sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803 (Louisiana Purchase).

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

A land deal between the United States and France in which the U.S. bought the Louisiana Territory for $15 million, doubling the nation's size. It gave the U.S. control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans, supported westward expansion, and was considered a major achievement of President Thomas Jefferson’s presidency.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

An exploration mission led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to map and explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory. Commissioned by President Jefferson, the expedition aimed to find a water route to the Pacific, establish trade with Native American tribes, and document the region’s geography, plants, animals, and people. It helped strengthen U.S. claims to the West.

Burr-Hamilton Duel

A deadly duel between Vice President Aaron Burr and former Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, caused by long-standing political and personal tensions. Burr fatally shot Hamilton in Weehawken, New Jersey. The event ended Hamilton’s life and destroyed Burr’s political career, highlighting the intense rivalries of early American politics.

Neutral Trading Rights

The principle that countries not involved in a war should be free to trade with all nations without interference. In the early 1800s, the U.S. demanded these rights during conflicts between Britain and France, but both nations often violated them by seizing American ships, leading to rising tensions and eventual conflict (such as the War of 1812).

Embargo of 1807 Purpose and Effects

• Purpose:
  Passed under President Thomas Jefferson to stop American ships from trading with foreign nations, especially Britain and France, in response to their attacks on U.S. ships and violations of neutral trading rights. It aimed to avoid war and pressure them to respect American neutrality.

• Effects:
  Severely hurt the U.S. economy, especially merchants and port cities. It failed to change British or French policies, increased smuggling, and led to widespread opposition—ultimately damaging Jefferson’s popularity.

Tecumseh

A Shawnee chief and skilled military leader who sought to unite Native American tribes into a confederation to resist U.S. expansion into tribal lands. He allied with the British during the War of 1812. Tecumseh’s efforts posed a major challenge to U.S. settlers until his death in battle in 1813, which weakened Native resistance in the Northwest Territory.

Causes of the War of 1812

• British impressment of American sailors (forcing them into the British navy).

• Violations of neutral trading rights during Britain’s war with France.

• British support of Native American resistance against U.S. expansion on the frontier.

• War Hawks in Congress, who pushed for war to defend national honor and possibly expand into Canada.

• Rising nationalism and desire to assert U.S. independence and sovereignty.

The Chesapeake Campaign

A major British offensive during the War of 1812 targeting the Chesapeake Bay region. British forces invaded and burned Washington, D.C., including the White House and Capitol. The campaign also included the failed British attack on Baltimore, where Fort McHenry was defended—an event that inspired Francis Scott Key to write “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

Battle of New Orleans and Andrew Jackson

The final major battle of the War of 1812, fought after the peace treaty had been signed (but not yet ratified). U.S. forces, led by General Andrew Jackson, decisively defeated a large British army. The victory made Jackson a national hero and boosted American nationalism, despite having no impact on the war’s outcome.

The Hartford Convention Significance

A meeting of New England Federalists who opposed the War of 1812 and discussed possible constitutional amendments and even secession. Seen as unpatriotic after the U.S. victory at New Orleans, the convention discredited the Federalist Party, leading to its rapid decline in national influence.

Era of Good Feelings Definition/Cause

• Definition:
  A period of national unity and political harmony in the United States during President James Monroe’s presidency (1817–1825), marked by the decline of the Federalist Party and the dominance of the Democratic-Republicans.

• Cause:
  The end of the War of 1812, rising nationalism, economic growth, and a lack of major partisan conflict created a sense of optimism and unity across the country.

John Marshall and the Supreme Court Decisions

• Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, allowing courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Confirmed the constitutionality of the national bank and denied states the power to tax it.

• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Gave Congress authority over interstate commerce.

Marshall's rulings promoted federal supremacy, a strong national government, and a broad interpretation of the Constitution.

Missouri Compromise (Causes and Terms of Compromise)

• Causes:

  • Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state, which would upset the balance of free and slave states in Congress.

  • Growing tensions over the expansion of slavery into western territories.

• Terms of the Compromise:

  • Missouri was admitted as a slave state.

  • Maine was admitted as a free state, maintaining the balance.

  • Slavery was banned north of the 36°30′ line in the Louisiana Territory (except Missouri).

Panic of 1819 (Cause and Effects)

• Cause:

  • Over-speculation in western lands and easy credit from state and national banks.

  • Falling crop prices and reduced demand for American goods in Europe after the War of 1812.

  • The Second Bank of the U.S. tightened credit and called in loans, leading to widespread financial distress.

• Effects:

  • First major economic depression in U.S. history.

  • Unemployment, bankruptcies, and foreclosures rose sharply.

  • Widespread public distrust of banks and increased criticism of the national bank.

  • Sparked demands for economic reform and helped fuel sectional tensions and the rise of Jacksonian Democracy.

Simón Bolívar

A South American military and political leader who played a key role in the independence movements of several Latin American countries from Spanish rule, including Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (named after him). Known as “The Liberator,” Bolívar inspired revolutions with Enlightenment ideals and hoped to unify South America into a large republic, though internal divisions ultimately prevented this.

The Monroe Doctrine

A U.S. foreign policy statement issued by President James Monroe declaring that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to future European colonization or interference. In return, the U.S. would stay out of European affairs. It asserted growing American influence and aimed to protect the independence of newly formed Latin American nations.

Creation of the AME Church

The African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church was founded by Richard Allen in Philadelphia as the first independent Black Christian denomination in the United States. It was created in response to racial discrimination in white Methodist churches and became a key institution for Black spiritual life, education, and activism during and after slavery.

Causes for Industrialization in the North

• Abundant natural resources like rivers for water power and coal for fuel.

• Large labor force due to population growth and immigration.

• Investment capital from merchants and banks to fund factories.

• Invention and innovation, such as the cotton gin and textile machines.

• Transportation improvements like roads, canals, and railroads.

• Limited agriculture compared to the South, pushing the North toward manufacturing and commerce.

Lowell Textile Factory (Including Conditions for Workers and the Strikes)

• Overview:
  Established in Lowell, Massachusetts in the early 1800s, it became a model for early American industrialization, especially in the textile industry. It employed mostly young, unmarried women known as “Lowell Mill Girls.”

• Conditions for Workers:
  Long hours (12–14 hours a day), noisy machinery, and strict rules in factory boardinghouses. Initially offered better pay and housing than other jobs for women, but conditions worsened over time.

• Strikes:
  Workers organized some of the first labor strikes in U.S. history (notably in 1834 and 1836) to protest wage cuts and poor working conditions. Although not immediately successful, these strikes marked the beginning of the American labor movement.

Democratic Reforms/Universal Manhood Suffrage

• Democratic Reforms:
  In the early 1800s, many states began removing property requirements for voting and holding office, expanding political participation.

• Universal Manhood Suffrage:
  The idea that all white men, regardless of property ownership or wealth, should have the right to vote. This shift significantly increased voter turnout and reflected the growing belief in political equality among white males, especially during the Jacksonian era.

Election of 1824 and the “Corrupt Bargain”

• Democratic Reforms:
  In the early 1800s, many states began removing property requirements for voting and holding office, expanding political participation.

• Universal Manhood Suffrage:
  The idea that all white men, regardless of property ownership or wealth, should have the right to vote. This shift significantly increased voter turnout and reflected the growing belief in political equality among white males, especially during the Jacksonian era.

The Nullification Crisis and Andrew Jackson’s Response

• Crisis:
  South Carolina, led by John C. Calhoun, declared the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional and claimed the right to nullify them (refuse to enforce them) within the state.

• Jackson’s Response:
  President Andrew Jackson strongly opposed nullification, viewing it as a threat to national unity. He issued a Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, asserting federal authority, and got Congress to pass the Force Bill, allowing him to use the military to enforce the law.

• Resolution:
  The crisis ended with a compromise tariff in 1833, proposed by Henry Clay, which gradually lowered duties and eased tensions.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

A law signed by President Andrew Jackson that authorized the federal government to negotiate treaties forcing Native American tribes in the Southeast to relocate west of the Mississippi River. It led to the forced removal of thousands of Native Americans, most notably the Cherokee Trail of Tears, resulting in great suffering and death.

Andrew Jackson and the Second Bank of the United States

President Andrew Jackson opposed the Second Bank, viewing it as a tool of the wealthy elite and a threat to democracy. He vetoed its recharter in 1832 and withdrew federal funds, placing them in state “pet banks.” His actions led to the Bank War, weakening the national bank and contributing to financial instability, including the Panic of 1837.

The Second Great Awakening

A widespread religious revival in the United States that emphasized personal salvation, emotional preaching, and individual responsibility. It inspired the growth of new Christian denominations and fueled major reform movements, including abolition, temperance, and women’s rights. It also expanded church participation, especially among women and African Americans.

Reform Movements and Effects (Asylum/Temperance/Public Schools)

• Asylum Reform:
  Led by Dorothea Dix, aimed to improve conditions for the mentally ill by creating state-funded mental hospitals.
  Effect: Greater public awareness and establishment of more humane institutions.

• Temperance Movement:
  Sought to reduce or eliminate alcohol consumption due to its link to social problems like poverty and domestic violence.
  Effect: Widespread support, especially from women; led to local and state alcohol bans and eventually the Prohibition movement.

• Public School Reform:
  Led by Horace Mann, focused on free, tax-supported, and standardized public education for all children.
  Effect: Expanded access to education, improved teacher training, and laid the foundation for the modern American school system.

William Lloyd Garrison

A leading abolitionist and journalist who founded the anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator in 1831. He called for the immediate emancipation of all enslaved people and rejected gradual approaches. Garrison was also a co-founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society and was known for his passionate, uncompromising stance against slavery.

Differences between Black and White Abolitionists

• Black Abolitionists:
  Often formerly enslaved or descendants of enslaved people, like Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth. They brought firsthand experience of slavery, emphasized racial equality, and often connected abolition to broader civil rights and social justice.

• White Abolitionists:
  Included activists like William Lloyd Garrison and Angelina Grimké, who opposed slavery on moral and religious grounds. Some supported gradual emancipation and didn’t always advocate for full racial equality.

• Key Difference:
  Black abolitionists typically pushed for both freedom and full equality, while many white abolitionists focused mainly on ending slavery, sometimes without addressing racial prejudice.

Elijah P. Lovejoy

An abolitionist newspaper editor and minister who strongly condemned slavery through his writings. He was attacked multiple times by pro-slavery mobs and ultimately killed in 1837 in Illinois while defending his printing press. Lovejoy became a martyr for the abolitionist movement and a symbol of the fight for free speech and anti-slavery activism.

United States v. Amistad (1841)

A Supreme Court case involving Africans who had been kidnapped and illegally sold into slavery. They took control of the Spanish ship Amistad and were captured off the U.S. coast. The Court, led by Chief Justice John Quincy Adams as legal counsel, ruled in favor of the Africans, declaring they were free individuals and had the right to resist illegal enslavement. The case became a powerful symbol for the abolitionist movement.

Angelina and Sarah Grimké

Southern-born sisters who became prominent abolitionists and women’s rights advocates in the 1830s and 1840s. They were among the first white women to publicly speak out against slavery, drawing on their experiences growing up in a slaveholding family in South Carolina. Their activism helped link the abolitionist and early feminist movements.

Seneca Falls Convention

The first women’s rights convention in the United States, held in Seneca Falls, New York. Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the convention produced the Declaration of Sentiments, which called for equal rights for women—including the right to vote. It marked the beginning of the organized women’s suffrage movement in the U.S.