Most of the eye is protected by
a cushion of fat and the bony orbit
Accessory structures include eyelids, eyebrows, eye lashes, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus and extrinsic muscles
The conjunctiva is a
transparent membrane that lines the eyelids from the inside and covers the whites of the eyes
It lubricates and protects the eye.
The lacrimal apparatus consists of the
lacrimal gland that secretes tears, and associated ducts.
six extrinsic eye muscles enable the eye to
follow moving objects
maintain the shape of the eyeball.
six extrinsic eye muscles include
Superior rectus m.
Inferior rectus m.
Lateral rectus m.
Medial rectus m.
Inferior oblique m.
Superior oblique m.
The eyeball is a slightly irregular hollow sphere with anterior and posterior poles. Its internal cavity is filled with
fluids called humors
The lens separates the internal cavity into
anterior and posterior segments (or cavities).
The wall of the eye is composed of three layers:
fibrous tunic
vascular tunic
sensory tunic
fibrous tunic
forms the outermost coat of the eye
composed of the opaque sclera (posteriorly) and the clear cornea (anteriorly).
vascular tunic
consists of a thin dark membrane, the choroid, whichcontains numerous blood vessels and forms the posterior portion of the vascular tunic.
Around the lens vascular tunic thickens and forms the ciliary body.
The ciliary body contains muscles that change the shape of the lens.
Anterior to the lens, the vascular tunic forms the iris (the colored portion of the eye).
The iris consists of two layers of muscles which control the size of the pupil.
The pupil is the central opening of the iris that regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
sensory tunic
the retina is a delicate two layered membrane that contains a pigment.
The outer layer absorbs light and prevents its scattering.
The inner neural layer contains photoreceptors that transduce light energy.
Bipolar and ganglion cells are located closer to the inner surface of the eye and carry visual stimulus from the receptor cells.
Ganglion cell axons run along the inner surface of the retina and join to form the optic nerve.
The optic disc is the site where the optic nerve leaves the eye. It lacks photoreceptors (the blind spot).
Photoreceptors found in the retina are called rods and cones
The lens separates the
internal eye into anterior and posterior segments (cavities)
the posterior segment
filled with vitreous humor
It transmits light and holds the neural retina firmly against the pigmented layer.
the anterior segment
filled with aqueous humor.
The anterior segment is composed of two chambers: - __anterior chambe__r (between the cornea and the iris) - posterior chamber (between the iris and the lens).
The lens is a
biconvex, transparent, flexible, avascular structure
allows precise focusing of light onto the retina.
The light goes through the following structures before reaching the photoreceptors:
Cornea → aqueous humor of the anterior chamber →pupil →aqueous humor of the posterior chamber→ lens→ vitreous humor of the posterior cavity→ ganglion cells of the retina → bipolar cells of the retina → photoreceptors.
Electromagnetic radiation includes
all energy waves from short gamma rays to long radio waves.
Our eyes respond to a small portion of this spectrum called the visible spectrum.
When light passes from one transparent medium to another, it
refracts (bends)
Light passing through a convex lens (as in the eye) is
bent so that the rays converge on a focal point.
When a convex lens forms an image, the image is
upside down and reversed right to left.
Accommodation is a
complex brainstem reflex which focuses the image on the fovea centralis
Suspensory ligaments that attach to the lens are
pulled taut in order to flatten the lens.
When ciliary muscles contract, the lens becomes
thicker (focusing on close objects).
When ciliary muscles relax,
tension is applied to the suspensory ligaments, thus flattening the lens(focusing on far away objects)
rods
respond to all wavelengths of light in the visible spectrum
are very sensitive
require only dim light to function
found throughout the retina
provide a fuzzy black and white image.
cones
only found at the fovea centralis
have low sensitivity
need bright light to function
provide high visual acuity
respond to selected wavelengths of light.
Membranous discs in photoreceptors (rods) contain
rhodopsin consists of protein opsin attached to retinal (vitamin A) molecule
Light changes conformation (shape) of retinal, which in turn brakes rhodopsin into opsin and retinal and causes generator potential.
This reaction is reversed in the darkness
From rods and cones the visual stimulus is passed to
bipolar and then ganglion cells
Axons of retinal ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
The medial fibers of the optic nerve decussate at
the optic chiasm
Most fibers of the optic tracts continue to the
thalamus
Optic radiations travel from the thalamus to the
primary visual cortex.
The association visual cortex deals with
shape
color
motion
depth perception.
It compares the image with previously seen objects for identification.
cataracts
cloudy lens
presbyopia
loss of lens elasticity with age
hyperopia
farsightedness due to compressed shape of the eye
myopia
nearsightedness due to elongated shape of the eye
glaucoma
increased intraoccular pressure
Anisocoria
difference in size between the right and left pupil
color blindness
abnormality of the cones in the retina