APES Unit 4

Core

Innermost zone of Earth made mostly out of iron and nickel

mantle

the layer of magma above the core

magma

molten rock

asthenosphere

semi-molten rock that is plastic

lithosphere

the solid upper mantle and crust where fossil evidence for plate movement has been found.

plate tectonics

the lithosphere is divided into constantly moving plates

earthquake

movement of Earth’s crust from released potential energy from moving tectonic plates

hotspots

where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere

volcano

a vent in Earth’s crust often formed by a hotspot

tsunami

giant waves caused by seismic activity

continental plate

a large section of the Earth's crust that forms the continents and is made out of less dense silicon dioxide

oceanic plates

plates found beneath oceans and are rich in iron making them more dense.

divergent boundary

a boundary where the plates are moving away from each other

seafloor spreading

the creation of new crust formed by magma created by divergent boundaries

convergent boundaries

where two plates collide

subduction

when an ocean plate and a continental plate collide, forcing the oceanic plate underneath the continental plate

island arcs

chains of volcanic islands created by subduction and hotspots

collision zone

where two continental plates collide and create a mountain range

transform boundaries

where plates move in opposite directions and slide past each other

fault

fractures in rock caused by the movement at transform boundaries, often creating earthquakes

igneous rocks

rocks formed directly from magma

basaltic rocks

dark rock often found in the crust of oceanic plates

granitic rocks

lighter colored rocks often found in the crust of continental plates. When it breaks down it forms sand.

sedimentary rocks

form when sediments are compressed by layers of other sediments

metamorphic rocks

created when a rock is subjected to high temperatures or pressures which causes a large change in the rock

rock cycle

the formation, alteration, and destruction of rocks. The longest and slowest cycle that starts and ends as magma.

physical weathering

the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals through water, wind, temperature variation, and/or plants and animals.

chemical weathering

the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions and/or dissolving of chemical elements

acid rain

rain high in sulfuric and nitric acid that can cause chemical weathering

erosion

physical removal of rock fragments by wind, water, ice, human activity and/or gravity

parent material

rock material where inorganic parts of the soil are derived.

horizons

horizontal soil layers that have their own color and texture

O horizon

the surface of the soil mostly containing organic matter in decomposition

humus

fully decomposed material in the lowest layer of the O horizon

A horizon/topsoil

made of mixed minerals and organic material

E horizon

the leaching zone under horizon O or A which brings iron, aluminum, and other organic acids to the B horizon

B horizon

made mostly of mineral matter, also called subsoil

C horizon

the least weathered and the most similar to the parent material rock

porosity

the size of air spaces between particles, characterized by sand, silt, or clay

water-holding capacity

the amount of water a soil can hold against gravity

permeability

the ability of water to move through soil

cation exchange capacity

the ability of a soil to hold and release cations

base saturation

the percentage of soil bases to soil acids

watersheds

all the land in a landscape that drains into a particular waterway

insolation

incoming solar radiation and the main source of Earth’s energy

albedo

light reflected back from Earth

Nitrogen gas and oxygen gas

the two main gases in the atmosphere

troposphere

the most dense layer of the atmosphere that is closest to Earth. It has the most immediate effect on Earth’s systems.

stratosphere

The second closest layer that contains the ozone layer at the bottom. Also called the inversion layer.

ozone layer

the layer that absorbs most UV-B radiation and all the UV-C radiation

mesosphere

the third closest layer where most meteors burn

thermosphere

the second farthest layer that blocks some x-rays and some UV radiation

exosphere

the farthest layer where satellites orbit

density

a factor that affects how air circulates

water vapor capacity

determines air circulation and water vapor retention.

saturation point

the maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air at a certain temperature

adiabatic cooling

a cooling effect that takes place as air rises and expands in volume due to decreased pressure

adiabatic heating

a heating effect that takes place as air sinks and decreases in volume due to an increase in pressure

latent heat release

the release of energy when water vapor condenses into liquid water

atmospheric convection currents

global patterns of air movement, caused by the unequal heating of Earth

hadley cells

air currents found between 30 degrees North and 30 degrees south

intertropical convergence zone

the region with the most sunlight where Hadley cells converge

pollar cells

where air rises at 60 degrees north or south and sinks at the poles or 90 degrees north or south

Ferrell Cells

the air currents between polar and Hadley cells

coriolis effect

the deflection of wind paths due to Earth’s rotation

gyres

the large circular movement of ocean currents

upwelling

when currents move away from an area allowing an upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water from the bottom

thermohaline circulation

the mixing of surface water a deep water that moves heat and nutrients

windward side

the side of a mountain facing the wind where adiabatic cooling occurs to create precipitation

leeward side

the side of a mountain not facing the wind where the weather is typically more arid

rain shadow

the difference in climate on either side of a mountain

El Nino

when ocean currents switch from east-west to west-east every 3-7 years and create large climate effects

La nina

when el nino reverses but winds are still strong so normal conditions are more pronounced then usual