AP Bio Unit 1-4 Midterm

CHNOPS - which of these elements are in carbs? lipids? proteins? Nucleic acids?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulfur

Carbs and Lipids are CHO
Sulfur is only in proteins
Nucleic acids have Nitrogen and Phosphate

Structure of a water molecule; why is it polar?

H20; Because Oxygen wants electrons

Effects of hydrogen bonding in water

Causes ice to float on top of the water; makes it a solvent

As a solvent, what kinds of things can water carry? Why does it matter in bio?

Anything that has a charge - other ions; polar molecules, not nonpolar molecules

Water can dissolve lots of things

Types of substances water can disslove; Why?

Anything that has a charge can get dissolved

Relationship between acid/bases and pH values, H+/OH- concentration

Solutions have pH values less than 7, indicating higher H+ concentration. Basic solutions have pH values greater than 7, indicating higher OH- concentration.

Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogfen bonds, Vanderwaals forces - what are they? Where are they found?

Covalent is a shared bond - Find it in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, all types of molecules

Ionic takes electrons and makes something more negative and attract the positive - found in chemicals but not in an organic being

Hydrogen bonds - Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular forces of attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom (H⁺) and a partially negative electronegative atom (like O, N, or F) in another molecule.

Vanderwaals forces are found in flies walking up walls supports their weight

Hydrolosis

Pulling apart a water molecule

Dehydration synthesis

Take out the water moleceule cause the other 2 molecules to come close

Why carbon?

It can bond with almost anything, very versatile element

-OH

Hydroxyl

-COOH

Carboxyl

C=O

Carbonyl

-NH2

Amino

Why do functional groups matter?

They have different properties; giving the molecule different properties

Carboxyl

Amino acid will always have at least one of these, gives them their acid

Amino

In an Amino acid, the amino part

Carbohydrate Structure

CHO on the sides of a carbon chain

Monomer

A monomer is a small, basic unit that can join together with other monomers to form a larger molecule called a polymer.

Fatty acid Structure

A long chain of carbons surrounded by hydrogens

Saturated Fatty Acid

No double bonds; completely surrounded by hydrogens

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Has some missing hydrogens, causing double bonds

Primary Structure

Long chain of amino acids; peptide bonds

Secondary Structure

Protein begins to fold

Tertiary Structure

Then folds into a ball

Quaternary Structure

The arrangement of multiple protein subunits into a functional, three-dimensional structure is known as quaternary structure. It stabilizes the protein and contributes to its overall function. Examples include hemoglobin, which consists of four subunits, and DNA polymerase, which has multiple subunits working together.

Peptide bonds

Bonds between amino acids

Denaturations

Denaturation is the process of altering the structure of a protein.

Heat, pH changes, or exposure to chemicals can cause it.

Denaturation disrupts the protein's secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

It can lead to loss of protein function.

What are enantiomers?

Mirror image molecules

Prokaryotic

Prokaryotes don’t have a nucleus, their DNA is in a loop, have their own ribosomes

Eukaryotic

membrane boud organelles, has a nucleus

Nucleus

Center of a cell where the DNA is held

Nucleolus

Structure within the nucleus of a cell responsible for producing ribosomes. Contains DNA, RNA, and proteins. Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis.

Plasma membrane

A thin barrier surrounding cells, made up of phospholipids and proteins. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell, maintaining cell integrity and regulating cell processes.

Nuclear membrane

A double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus of a cell. It separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm and regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores.

endoplasmic reticulum

Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, folding, and transport, as well as lipid metabolism. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis, while the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is responsible for lipid synthesis and detoxification.

ribosomes

They are found floating around and on the Endoplasmic reticulum making it “rough”

golgi apparatus

Organelle responsible for packaging and modifying proteins in eukaryotic cells. Plays a crucial role in intracellular transport and secretion of proteins.

vesicles/vacuoles

Pipes that connect one part of the system to another

lysosomes

Waste management, break down waste and recycle it

cell wall

Phospholipid bulayer that protects the cell

Endomembrane system

Manufacture and export proteins outside the cell

Compartmentalization

When an organelle can do 2 things at once

Cell fractionation

Helps to examine a cell, breaks up a cell into it’s organelles in a centrifuge

Characteristics that makes chlorplasts and ribosomes unique

They all have their own ribosomes and DNA; ties to endosymbiote theory

Chloroplasts

Where photosynthesis is preformed in a plant cell

Plasmodesmata

Passageways that connect a plant to the rest of it

Gap junctions

How animal cells transfer data between cells

SA-V ratio

SA divided by Volume
V= LxWxH
SA=LxW
or 6*A

Osmosis

Process by which water molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

Hypertonic

When the water moves out of the cell; solution has more salt

Hypotonic

Water moves in; water solution has less salt

Isotonic

Neutral; reaches equilibrium

Why aquaporins are needed

Aquaporins are proteins that allow water through the cell membrane

Diffusion vs active transport

Process that moves molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration. No energy required. Helps maintain equilibrium.

Process that moves molecules against the concentration gradient. Requires energy. Helps maintain concentration differences.

ATP; why do we need it in active transport

A high-energy molecule used in active transport. It provides the energy needed to move molecules against their concentration gradient, from low to high concentration. This process is crucial for maintaining cell homeostasis and carrying out essential functions such as nutrient uptake and waste removal.

Ligands and receptors

the molecule that fits into the receptor and releases a cell signal

Autocrine

Cell signaling mechanism where a cell secretes signaling molecules that bind to its own receptors

Paracrine

Signals that are recieved when they’re touching

Synaptic signaling

Signaling in nerves; over a short jump

Endocrine; long distance signaling

A hormone that goes through the whole body; only things with receptors will take it; hormones

How one hormone can cause multiple responses

Depends on the cell it hits, can do different things to different cells

Benefits of signaling pathways

1) It can be regulate

2) It can amplify it

Reception, Transduction, Response

The signaling chain and pattern

Phosphorylation Cascade

Chain of ATP donating Phosphates to activate proteins

Second messenger

Things like CAMP; something released through the cell that triggers the rest of the process

G-protein scenario

Ion-gated ligand scenario

Gate that opens and closes when a ligand is recepted

growth factors

Triggers mitosis in a cell

Mitosis and it’s purpose

Division and creates identical copies of a cell; cell reproduction

How are chromosomes formed?

Formed from Chromatin

Chromatin

Pieces of DNA

Histones

Proteins that help package DNA into a compact form called chromatin.

Role of spindle fibers in mitosis

They pull apart the chromosomes to copy the DNA

PMAT

Prophase- Chromosomes get copied
Metaphase- Cells align together in the middle; nucleus dissolves
Anaphase- Spindle fibers attach to the chromatin
Telaphase- 2 Nuclie

Cyclins - CDKs

Regulatory proteins that control the progression of the cell cycle.

Cancer - unregulated cell cycle

Abnormal cell growth caused by a disrupted cell cycle.

Density-dependent inhibition, attachment

When cells grow too big they stop; or when they are touching another

Rules of Thermodynamics

1) Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.

2) The entropy of an isolated system always increases.

3) As temperature approaches absolute zero, entropy approaches a minimum value."

Enzymes

Proteins that breakdown things in your body; catalyze chemical reactions

Gibbs free engery

Measure of a system's ability to do work or drive a chemical reaction. Determines spontaneity and equilibrium of a process.

Endergonic

A type of chemical reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed. It has a positive change in free energy and is not spontaneous.

Exergonic

A chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of ATP. It occurs when the products have less energy than the reactants.

Spontaneous reactions

Reactions that occur naturally without the need for external energy input. They tend to proceed in a forward direction, releasing energy and increasing entropy. Examples include combustion, dissolution of salts in water, and some chemical reactions.

Potential energy in living things

Substrate-enzyme concentration curve

effect of temperature, PH on enzyme activity

Oxidation

Reduction

Glycolosis - Steps, inpouts, outputs, and location

Pyruvate Oxidation and krebs cycle

Electron Transport Chain

Role of Oxygen

Oxidative phosphorylation vs Substrate level

Proton motive force

Chemiosmosis

Light Dependent reactions

Calvin Cycle

Chloroplast structure

Pigments; Color absorptions