AP Bio Unit 1-4 Midterm

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CHNOPS - which of these elements are in carbs? lipids? proteins? Nucleic acids?

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CHNOPS - which of these elements are in carbs? lipids? proteins? Nucleic acids?

Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulfur

Carbs and Lipids are CHO
Sulfur is only in proteins
Nucleic acids have Nitrogen and Phosphate

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Structure of a water molecule; why is it polar?

H20; Because Oxygen wants electrons

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Effects of hydrogen bonding in water

Causes ice to float on top of the water; makes it a solvent

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As a solvent, what kinds of things can water carry? Why does it matter in bio?

Anything that has a charge - other ions; polar molecules, not nonpolar molecules

Water can dissolve lots of things

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Types of substances water can disslove; Why?

Anything that has a charge can get dissolved

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Relationship between acid/bases and pH values, H+/OH- concentration

Solutions have pH values less than 7, indicating higher H+ concentration. Basic solutions have pH values greater than 7, indicating higher OH- concentration.

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Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogfen bonds, Vanderwaals forces - what are they? Where are they found?

Covalent is a shared bond - Find it in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, all types of molecules

Ionic takes electrons and makes something more negative and attract the positive - found in chemicals but not in an organic being

Hydrogen bonds - Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular forces of attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom (H⁺) and a partially negative electronegative atom (like O, N, or F) in another molecule.

Vanderwaals forces are found in flies walking up walls supports their weight

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Hydrolosis

Pulling apart a water molecule

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Dehydration synthesis

Take out the water moleceule cause the other 2 molecules to come close

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Why carbon?

It can bond with almost anything, very versatile element

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-OH

Hydroxyl

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-COOH

Carboxyl

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C=O

Carbonyl

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-NH2

Amino

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Why do functional groups matter?

They have different properties; giving the molecule different properties

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Carboxyl

Amino acid will always have at least one of these, gives them their acid

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Amino

In an Amino acid, the amino part

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Carbohydrate Structure

CHO on the sides of a carbon chain

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Monomer

A monomer is a small, basic unit that can join together with other monomers to form a larger molecule called a polymer.

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Fatty acid Structure

A long chain of carbons surrounded by hydrogens

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Saturated Fatty Acid

No double bonds; completely surrounded by hydrogens

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Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Has some missing hydrogens, causing double bonds

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Primary Structure

Long chain of amino acids; peptide bonds

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Secondary Structure

Protein begins to fold

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Tertiary Structure

Then folds into a ball

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Quaternary Structure

The arrangement of multiple protein subunits into a functional, three-dimensional structure is known as quaternary structure. It stabilizes the protein and contributes to its overall function. Examples include hemoglobin, which consists of four subunits, and DNA polymerase, which has multiple subunits working together.

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Peptide bonds

Bonds between amino acids

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Denaturations

Denaturation is the process of altering the structure of a protein.

Heat, pH changes, or exposure to chemicals can cause it.

Denaturation disrupts the protein's secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

It can lead to loss of protein function.

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What are enantiomers?

Mirror image molecules

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Prokaryotic

Prokaryotes don’t have a nucleus, their DNA is in a loop, have their own ribosomes

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Eukaryotic

membrane boud organelles, has a nucleus

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Nucleus

Center of a cell where the DNA is held

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Nucleolus

Structure within the nucleus of a cell responsible for producing ribosomes. Contains DNA, RNA, and proteins. Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis.

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Plasma membrane

A thin barrier surrounding cells, made up of phospholipids and proteins. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell, maintaining cell integrity and regulating cell processes.

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Nuclear membrane

A double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus of a cell. It separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm and regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores.

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endoplasmic reticulum

Plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, folding, and transport, as well as lipid metabolism. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis, while the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is responsible for lipid synthesis and detoxification.

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ribosomes

They are found floating around and on the Endoplasmic reticulum making it “rough”

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golgi apparatus

Organelle responsible for packaging and modifying proteins in eukaryotic cells. Plays a crucial role in intracellular transport and secretion of proteins.

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vesicles/vacuoles

Pipes that connect one part of the system to another

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lysosomes

Waste management, break down waste and recycle it

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cell wall

Phospholipid bulayer that protects the cell

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Endomembrane system

Manufacture and export proteins outside the cell

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Compartmentalization

When an organelle can do 2 things at once

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Cell fractionation

Helps to examine a cell, breaks up a cell into it’s organelles in a centrifuge

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Characteristics that makes chlorplasts and ribosomes unique

They all have their own ribosomes and DNA; ties to endosymbiote theory

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Chloroplasts

Where photosynthesis is preformed in a plant cell

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Plasmodesmata

Passageways that connect a plant to the rest of it

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Gap junctions

How animal cells transfer data between cells

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SA-V ratio

SA divided by Volume
V= LxWxH
SA=LxW
or 6*A

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Osmosis

Process by which water molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

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Hypertonic

When the water moves out of the cell; solution has more salt

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Hypotonic

Water moves in; water solution has less salt

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Isotonic

Neutral; reaches equilibrium

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Why aquaporins are needed

Aquaporins are proteins that allow water through the cell membrane

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Diffusion vs active transport

Process that moves molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration. No energy required. Helps maintain equilibrium.

Process that moves molecules against the concentration gradient. Requires energy. Helps maintain concentration differences.

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ATP; why do we need it in active transport

A high-energy molecule used in active transport. It provides the energy needed to move molecules against their concentration gradient, from low to high concentration. This process is crucial for maintaining cell homeostasis and carrying out essential functions such as nutrient uptake and waste removal.

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Ligands and receptors

the molecule that fits into the receptor and releases a cell signal

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Autocrine

Cell signaling mechanism where a cell secretes signaling molecules that bind to its own receptors

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Paracrine

Signals that are recieved when they’re touching

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Synaptic signaling

Signaling in nerves; over a short jump

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Endocrine; long distance signaling

A hormone that goes through the whole body; only things with receptors will take it; hormones

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How one hormone can cause multiple responses

Depends on the cell it hits, can do different things to different cells

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Benefits of signaling pathways

1) It can be regulate

2) It can amplify it

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Reception, Transduction, Response

The signaling chain and pattern

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Phosphorylation Cascade

Chain of ATP donating Phosphates to activate proteins

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Second messenger

Things like CAMP; something released through the cell that triggers the rest of the process

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G-protein scenario

knowt flashcard image
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Ion-gated ligand scenario

Gate that opens and closes when a ligand is recepted

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growth factors

Triggers mitosis in a cell

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Mitosis and it’s purpose

Division and creates identical copies of a cell; cell reproduction

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How are chromosomes formed?

Formed from Chromatin

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Chromatin

Pieces of DNA

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Histones

Proteins that help package DNA into a compact form called chromatin.

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Role of spindle fibers in mitosis

They pull apart the chromosomes to copy the DNA

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PMAT

Prophase- Chromosomes get copied
Metaphase- Cells align together in the middle; nucleus dissolves
Anaphase- Spindle fibers attach to the chromatin
Telaphase- 2 Nuclie

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Cyclins - CDKs

Regulatory proteins that control the progression of the cell cycle.

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Cancer - unregulated cell cycle

Abnormal cell growth caused by a disrupted cell cycle.

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Density-dependent inhibition, attachment

When cells grow too big they stop; or when they are touching another

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Rules of Thermodynamics

1) Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.

2) The entropy of an isolated system always increases.

3) As temperature approaches absolute zero, entropy approaches a minimum value."

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Enzymes

Proteins that breakdown things in your body; catalyze chemical reactions

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Gibbs free engery

Measure of a system's ability to do work or drive a chemical reaction. Determines spontaneity and equilibrium of a process.

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Endergonic

A type of chemical reaction that requires an input of energy to proceed. It has a positive change in free energy and is not spontaneous.

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Exergonic

A chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of ATP. It occurs when the products have less energy than the reactants.

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Spontaneous reactions

Reactions that occur naturally without the need for external energy input. They tend to proceed in a forward direction, releasing energy and increasing entropy. Examples include combustion, dissolution of salts in water, and some chemical reactions.

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Potential energy in living things

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Substrate-enzyme concentration curve

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effect of temperature, PH on enzyme activity

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Oxidation

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Reduction

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Glycolosis - Steps, inpouts, outputs, and location

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Pyruvate Oxidation and krebs cycle

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Electron Transport Chain

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Role of Oxygen

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Oxidative phosphorylation vs Substrate level

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Proton motive force

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Chemiosmosis

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Light Dependent reactions

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Calvin Cycle

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Chloroplast structure

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Pigments; Color absorptions

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