Chapter 12

Definition of Learning

A change in mind or behavior due to experience, described as a form of neural plasticity that remodels neural connections and alters behavior.

Definition of Memory

The result of learning, functioning as the storage of information in the brain.

Long-term Memory (LTM)

The storage of memory for longer than 60 seconds.

Declarative (Explicit) Memory

Information that can be consciously recalled, such as facts and events.

Non-declarative (Implicit) Memory

Behaviors or responses that cannot be consciously recalled.

Episodic Memory

A type of declarative memory that relates to personally experienced events (e.g., your 16th birthday).

Semantic Memory

A type of declarative memory that involves general knowledge and concepts (e.g., the identity of the first president).

Procedural Memory

A type of non-declarative memory that involves skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike, shooting a basketball).

Emotional Memory

A type of non-declarative memory that involves conditioned responses tied to emotions (e.g., feeling fear at the sight of a specific animal).

Working Memory (WM)

The temporary storage of information for conscious processing, actively used to manipulate information from current experiences or existing memories, acting as a 'mental workspace'.

Working Memory Capacity

Limited capacity, with adults typically holding around $7\pm2$ items in memory.

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) and Working Memory

The PFC primarily controls working memory, acting as the 'central executive' to control attention and integrate information from various brain areas for thinking, planning, and decision-making.

Amnesia

Loss of long-term memory (LTM) due to disease or trauma, primarily affecting declarative memory.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to store new information following an injury.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to retrieve past information prior to an injury.

Hippocampal Formation (HF) Role in Declarative Memory

Comprises the hippocampus and adjacent structures; it is significantly involved in the consolidation and retrieval of declarative memories, with more damage leading to worse amnesia. Older memories may eventually transfer to other cortical areas like the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices.

Amygdala Function in Memory

Critical for the emotional processing of memories, its activity increases hippocampal activity when emotions or stress are involved, enhancing learning retention and memory impact through emotional conditioning.

Consolidation

The process by which the brain forms a physical representation of an experience, which remains fragile until fully consolidated, often occurring during sleep when the HF is not engaged in immediate learning.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored memories, which, like consolidation of declarative memories, significantly involves the hippocampal formation.

Importance of Sleep for Memory

Memory consolidation appears to occur primarily when the hippocampal formation is not engaged in immediate learning, often during sleep, with similar patterns of activation in HF and cortex noted during sleep correlating with improved memory performance.

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

The persistent strengthening of synapses resulting from the simultaneous activation of both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons, crucial for forming new memories and associations.

LTP and Dendritic Spines

Long-term Potentiation leads to new dendritic spines or the enlargement of existing synapses, increasing synaptic sensitivity.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A degenerative impairment of memory and cognitive function that primarily affects declarative memory initially, then progresses to working memory challenges, impacting decision-making and reasoning abilities.

Neuropathological Changes in Alzheimer's

Involves excessive proteins disrupting neuron functioning, leading to synapse loss, interruption of LTP, and neuron death. Key markers include amyloid beta plaques outside neurons and tau neurofibrillary tangles within neurons, particularly damaging the temporal and frontal cortices and their interconnections.