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Biological Anthropology

The study of humans as a biological species, encompassing various fields such as forensic anthropology, genetics, and evolutionary biology.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research and experimentation that includes asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing data.

Hypothesis

An educated guess or proposed explanation that is testable and falsifiable.

Natural Selection

The process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring, leading to gradual changes in a population.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells from one parent cell.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that produces four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.

Principle of Segregation

Each individual has two alleles for each characteristic, and these alleles separate randomly during the formation of gametes.

Complete Dominance

A genetic situation where one allele completely masks the effect of another allele.

Microevolution

The process by which small-scale changes occur in a population over time.

Speciation

The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

Morphological Species Concept

Defines species based on physical characteristics that are distinct and consistent.

Biological Species Concept

Defines species as groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from others.

Alleles

Different versions of the same gene that can result in variations of a trait.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism, representing the alleles inherited from the parents.

Phenotype

The observable physical and physiological traits of an organism, determined by its genotype.

Cladogram

A diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships and classifications among species based on shared characteristics.

Phylogenetic Tree

A branching diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among species, including a time component.

Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.

Gene Flow

The transfer of genetic variation from one population to another.

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events.

Macroevolution

The evolution of large scale changes in species over long periods, leading to the emergence of new genera, families, or higher taxonomic groups.

Adaptive Radiation

A process in which organisms diversify rapidly into a wide variety of forms to adapt to different environments.

Genetic Variation

Differences in genes among individuals within a population, which is essential for the process of evolution.

Selective Pressure

Any phenomena that alters the behavior and fitness of living organisms within a given environment, affecting natural selection.

Founder Effect

A reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors.

Bottleneck Effect

A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or natural selection, leading to decreased genetic variability.

Extinction

The permanent loss of a species, which can significantly influence macroevolution by allowing other species to fill ecological niches.

Gradualism

The theory that evolution occurs slowly and steadily through a series of small changes over long periods of time.

Punctuated Equilibrium

A theory in evolutionary biology proposing that species evolve during short periods of rapid change, separated by long periods of stability.

Adaptive Traits

Characteristics that enhance an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.

Mass Extinction Events

Periods in Earth's history during which a significant, widespread, and rapid decrease in biodiversity occurs, often influencing macroevolution.

Convergent Evolution

The process whereby unrelated species develop similar traits due to adapting to similar environments or niches.

Divergent Evolution

The accumulation of differences between closely related species, often due to differing environments or adaptive pressures.

Anagenesis

The gradual evolution of a species without branching, leading to a single lineage, rather than multiple distinct species.

Cladogenesis

The branching of a species into two or more new species, contributing to biodiversity.

Niche Partitioning

The process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them coexist, influencing macroevolution.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in growth, development, and reproduction of all living organisms.

Chromosomes

Structures made of DNA and protein that carry genetic information; humans have 23 pairs.

Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.

Locus

The specific position of a gene or genetic marker on a chromosome.

Allelic Frequency

The relative frequency of an allele in a population, influencing genetic variation.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a particular gene.

Phenotypic Ratio

The ratio of different phenotypes in the offspring produced by a genetic cross.

Punnett Square

A grid used to predict the genotypes of offspring from a particular parental cross.

Epigenetics

The study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA, which then carries the genetic information needed for protein synthesis.

Translation

The process through which ribosomes synthesize proteins using the mRNA transcript.

Recessive Trait

A trait that is not expressed in the phenotype unless two copies of the recessive allele are present.

Dominant Trait

A trait that is expressed in the phenotype even if only one copy of the dominant allele is present.

Linkage

The tendency of genes that are located close to each other on a chromosome to be inherited together.

Carrier

An individual who has one copy of a recessive allele for a trait and does not exhibit the trait but can pass it to offspring.

Genomic Imprinting

The phenomenon where certain genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin-specific manner.

Ancestral Trait

A trait that was present in the common ancestor of a group.

Derived Trait

A trait that is a modified version of an ancestral trait.

Genetic Engineering

The manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.