PHYSICAL SCIENCE (MIDTERMS)

Nucleosynthesis

The creation of new atomic nuclei, center of atoms made up of protons and neutrons.

Fusion

Process of joining 2 or more things to form a single entity.

Fission

Action of dividing or splitting something into 2 or more parts.

Atomic number

Number of protons in the nucleus.

Mass number

Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

Big Bang Theory

Scientific theory about the origin of the universe.

Big Bang Theory (Singularity)

•       It was first proposed by Belgian astrophysicist and priest Abbe Georges Lemaitre (1894-1966)

•       The name _______ as coined by British astronomer Fred Hoyle in 1949.

•       All matter and energy were compressed at a single point (singularity) at the time of the expansion.

MAJOR TYPES OF NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

•       Primordial N. or Big Bang N.

•       Stellar Nucleosynthesis

•       Supernova Nucleosynthesis

Primordial Nucleosynthesis

•The proton, neutron, and electron were moving around without control.

•During the first three minutes of the rapid expansion of the universe, rapid cooling also occurs, thus slowing down the sub-atomic particles, which provides more opportunities for binding together to form light elements.

ELEMENTS IN THE PRIMORIDAL NUCLEOSYNTHESIS/BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

•       Deuterium

•       Hydrogen

•       Helium

•       Lithium

•       Beryllium

Formula to get Mass Number

Protons + Neutrons

Formula to get Neutrons

Mass Number - Atomic Number

Atomic Number is equal to?

Protons = Electrons

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

• Process of creating elements within stars by combining protons and neutrons to form LIGHT ELEMENTS

• Stars, which are giant balls mostly made of hydrogen and helium, act as sites for nuclear reactions in the universe. Through the process, they are able to fuse light elements to form heavier elements.

What are the Heavy Elements in the Periodic Table of Elements?

Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, up to Iron

Supernova Nucleosynthesis

•       It is the process by which HEAVIER ELEMENTS than IRON (Fe) were created.

What are the two characteristics that allow to make Heavier Elements than Iron?

1.        Extreme temperature

2.        Abundant number of neutrons

•       Supernova stars can reach 100 Billion ̊C 6000x hotter than the core of sun

Periodic Table

• Arrangement of elements based on atomic number and properties.

• atomic mass of the element was the most fundamental property in classifying the element.

• He arranged the known elements according to their increasing atomic masses and their properties.

• In 1913, an English physicist named Henry Moseley discovered that atomic number is the most fundamental property of an element and not its atomic mass.

• This discovery changed the whole perspective of elements and their properties.

• Accordingly, Mendeleev’s periodic law was modified into Modern periodic law.

Who examined the relationship among atomic masses of elements, and their physical and chemical properties?

Dmitri Mendeleev

Biomolecules

Molecules of life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Major Classes of Organic Molecules

-          Carbohydrates

-          Lipids

-          Proteins

-          Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules

• Large molecules composed of subunits called monomers.

• term used for large molecules.

  -          The term polymer is the same as macromolecule.

  -          Monomer - one basic unit or subunit

  -          Polymer - a chain of basic units

BASIC UNIT

Basic building blocks

Chain of Units

·         Large molecule or chain of basic structures

Proteins

• Abundant organic compounds with various functions in living organisms.

• CHON - (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen)

• the function of proteins is for the fundamental, structural, and functional framework of a cell

• Polymer - Proteins

• Monomer - Amino Acids

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN

-          providing mechanical support

-          generating movement

-          immune protection

-          transmitting nerve impulses

-          controlling growth and differentiation

-          build and repair muscles and tissues

-          act as enzymes

ENZYMATIC PROTEINS

1.        Serves as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions,

Example: Amylase, Urease etc.

STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

1.        - SUPPORT,

Example: Keratin (Skin, Nails, Hair)

STORAGE

Storage of amino acids

Example: Albumin

TRANSPORT PROTEINS

1.        Transport of other substances

Example: Hemoglobin (Red blood cells)

CONTRACTILE AND MOTOR PROTEINS

1.        Movement

Example: Actin and Myosin

DEFENSIVE PROTEINS

1.        Protection against diseases

Example: Antibodies

HORMONAL PROTEINS

1.        Coordination of organism’s activities

Example: Insulin, Growth hormones

Carbohydrates

• Chief energy source, structural component of cells, and categorized into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

• Also called hydrates of carbon or saccharides, which means “sugars”.

• o    Polymer: Carbohydrates

  o    Monomer: Saccharine or Glucose

  -           C H O (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen)

Nucleic Acids

-          macromolecules built as a long chain of monomers called nucleotides.

-          Primary function is for storage and transmission of genetic information.

-          Two types of nucleic acids are:

-          DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

DNA

Genetic material containing hereditary information and nitrogenous bases (A-T, G-C).

RNA

Single-stranded nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis with nitrogenous bases (G-C, A-U).

-          carries out genetic material for most of the viruses and is associated with the protein synthesis of all cellular organisms.

Lipids

Highest energy source stored as fats, including triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids, and waxes.

-          Polymer: Lipids

-          Monomer: Fatty acids & Glycerol

-          Ex. Oil, butter, margarine, lard

FATS

•       also known as triglycerides or blood fats

•       circulates in the bloodstream along w/ cholesterol

STEROIDS or STEROLS

•       ex. Cholesterol – one of the most important steroids and a component of animal cell membrane and a precursor for the synthesis of a number of steroid hormone such as testosterone, progesterone and estrogen. The liver produce cholesterol that you need.

PHOSPOLIPIDS

this can be found in cell membrane which allows it to be semipermeable or selectively permeable to certain substances.

WAXES

cuticle covering of the surface of the leaves and stems of the plants, and protective covering of the skin and fur of some animals.

Renewable energy

can be reproduced easily or can be replenished by natural processes.

Non- renewable energy

are those that have a limited supply and cannot easily be restored, remade, re-grown, or re-generated.

Fossil Fuels

• are formed by natural processes such as anaerobic

  decomposition of buried dead organisms.

• contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

• remains of dead plants and animals

USES OF FOSSIL FUELS

ELECTRICITY

TRANSPORTATION

POWER INDUSTRY

MANUFACTURING

Solar energy

• Energy derived from the sun

• Solar technologies can harness this energy for a variety of uses, including generating electricity, providing light or a

  comfortable interior environment, and heating water for domestic, commercial, or industrial use.

• Cagayan de Oro, Mindanao

Geothermal Energy

• is heat energy from the earth—Geo (earth) + thermal (heat).

• Produced heat from beneath the earth – crust

• Geothermal resources are reservoirs of hot water that exist or are human made at varying temperatures and depths below the Earth's surface.

• Geothermal energy can be used for electricity generation, direct use, and heating and cooling.

Hydroelectric Power or Hydroelectric energy or Hydroelectricity

is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy, which uses the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity.

Biogas

• Derived from anaerobic fermentation of biomass and solid

  wastes, which are combusted to produce heat and electrical power.

• It could be used for production of various industrial chemicals, such as ethanol, butyl alcohol, lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen gas, and various nutraceutical or antimicrobial molecules with medical or health benefit.

Electronegativity

•Linus Carl Pauling (1932)

•_________ is defined as the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.

•Pauling scale or Electronegativity scale

Factors affecting the Electronegativity of an Atom

1. Atomic size or Radius. A greater atomic size will result in less value of electronegativity, this happens because electrons being far away from the nucleus will experience a lesser force of attraction

2. Effective nuclear charge. A greater value of nuclear charge will result in a greater value of electronegativity. This happens because an increase in nuclear charge causes electron attraction with greater force.

3. Hybridization state of an atom. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the associated electronegativity, the more an atom or a substituent group attracts electrons.

4. Bond order. The number of chemical bonds between a pair of atoms and indicates the stability of a bond. As the bond order increases electronegativity increases.

5. Oxidation number or Oxidation state. The increase in the oxidation state of an atom, through a chemical reaction, is known as oxidation; The electronegativity of an element increases with the oxidation state of the element. The total number of electrons that an atom either gains or loses in order to form a chemical bond with another atom.

ATOMIC RADIUS TREND IN PERIODIC TABLE

•The atomic radius of atoms generally decreases from left to right across a period.

•The atomic radius of atoms generally increases from top to bottom within a group.

•There are some small exceptions, such as the oxygen radius being slightly greater than the nitrogen radius.

Group in the Periodic Table

Column in the periodic table

Elements have the same number of valence electrons

Period in the Periodic Table

Row in the periodic table

Elements have the same number of electron shells

Exemptions

1.For elements in group II-B, the electronegativity increases from top to bottom. Therefore, Zn < Cd < Hg.

2. For elements in group III-A, the electronegativity of

aluminum is greater than gallium. Therefore, Al < Ga

Elements

contain only one kind of atom

Compound

contain two or more atoms

Polarity octet rule

is a physical property of compounds which relates other physical properties such as melting and boiling points, solubility, and intermolecular interactions between molecules.

Octet Rule

refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence shell. When atoms have fewer than eight electrons, they tend to react and form more stable compounds.

Covalent bond

formed when atoms share electrons in order to satisfy the octet rule.

Covalent bonding can be POLAR or NON-POLAR.

Ionic Bond

The complete transfer of electron from one atom (metal) to another atom (non-metal) is called _____.