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Asexual Reproduction
Offspring inherit DNA from 1 parent; produces "clones"
What are 3 advantages of asexual reproduction?
Offspring assured without another organism
Adapted to parent's environment
Parent passes on more complete set of genes
What are the 6 types of asexual reproduction?
Vegetative propagation
Spore formation
Binary fission
Budding
Fragmentation
Parthenogenesis
Vegetative Propagation
Immature organisms from non-sexual tissue
Spore Formation
Reproductive cells
Binary Fission
Two daughter cells
Budding
1 mother (larger) and 1 daughter (smaller) organism
Fragmentation
Two mature individuals
Parthenogenesis
Parent produces embryo without fertilization
Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction involving the fusion of haploid female gamete (egg cell) and haploid male gamete (sperm cell) to form a diploid zygote
What is produced by meiosis
Haploid gametes (with independent assortment)
What is the purpose of sexual reproduction?
To mix the genetic material from two parents to produce offspring - creates variation
What are the 4 disadvantages of sexual reproduction?
Sex organs and mating behavior are costly
Mating behavior can be risky
Mating not guaranteed
Only half the genes are passed on from a parent (cost of meiosis)
Cost of Meiosis
50% reduction in the parent's genes passed on to offspring via sexual reproduction; relatively inefficient
What are the 3 advantages of sexual reproduction?
Coping with environmental change
Coping with parasites and pathogens
Asexual organisms cannot purge mutations
Red Queen Hypothesis
Sex and genetic recombination provide moving targets for pathogen evolution
Muller's Ratchet
A process in which the absence of recombination (especially in an asexual population) there is an accumulation of irreversible deleterious mutations
What are the 2 ways to determine sex?
Genetic determination
Environmental determination
What are the 2 ways sex is determined in genetic determination?
Chromosome combination
Presence/absence of sex chromosome
How is sex determined in environmental determination?
Temperature dependent sex determination
What are the 2 terms to differentiate sex organs in plants?
Dioecious
Hermaphrodism
Dioecious
Separate male and female plants
Hermaphrodism
A plant have both male and female sex organs
Two types of hermaphrodism in plants?
Monoecious
Plants with perfect flowers
Monoecious
When one plant has separate male and female flowers
What do sex organs in plants with perfect flowers look like?
When one plant has one flower type with both male and female parts
Are more plants dioecious or hermaphroditic?
Hermaphroditic
Do most vertebrate species have separate sexes or are they hermaphroditic?
Separate sexes
What are the 2 types of hermaphrodites in animals?
Simultaneous Hermaphrodites
Sequential Hermaphrodites
Simultaneous Hermaphrodites
Both male and female functions at the same time
Sequential Hermaphrodites
Starts with one sex's function and then switches to the other through physiological transformation
Advantage of having separate sexes
Avoid costs of performing both roles
Disadvantage of having separate sexes
Reproductive failure
Hermaphrodism occurs when...
cost of reproductive failure > cost of producing both male and female functions
Hermaphrodism favoritism follows what type of curve?
Convex curve
Favoring separate sexes follows what type of curve?
Concave curve
Self-Fertilization (selfing)
An individual's male gametes fertilize its own female gametes
Out-Crossing
Breeding with other individuals
When is out-crossing and selfing used?
If mates are available then out-crossing is used If mates are unavailable then selfing is used
What are the 3 different types of mating systems?
Monogamy
Promiscuity
Polygamy
Monogamy
One male and one female (can be serial or life-long)
What 3 things are favored by monogamy?
Equal and important male contribution to raising offspring
Even resource distribution
Inability to monopolize > 1 female
Percentages of monogamy in mammals and birds
<10% of mammals and ~90% of birds
Promiscuity
Both sexes have multiple partners
What 2 things are favored by promiscuity?
Inability to monopolize resources
Unpredictable environment
Which mating system is most common among animals?
Promiscuity
Which mating system is universal among out-crossing plants?
Promiscuity
Polygamy
When one sex has multiple partners
What are the two types of polygamy?
Polygyny
Polyandry
Polygyny
1 male has > 1 female
Polyandry
1 female has > 1 male
What 3 things are favored by polygamy?
Patchy resources
Polygyny: females prefer few best males
Polyandry: female looks for superior sperm or mating "gifts"; unpredictable environment to maximize egg production
Polygyny Threshold Model
Model that shows that polygyny occurs when territory variation is so great that some females are better off in polygyny than monogamy
Sexual Dimorphism
Phenotypic difference between males and females (primary and/or secondary sexual characteristics)
When are females larger?
When there is a need for larger/more offspring or female gametes
When are males larger?
When males compete physically for mates
Sexual Selection
Individuals differentiate among potential mates based on traits
Intrasexual Selection
Within-sex competition for mates
Intersexual Selection
"mate choice"
Sexual selection and parental investment
The sex that makes the larger investment will be more discriminating
Mate Choice
When the best mate makes the highest quality offspring
What are the 2 types of benefits related to mate choice?
Material benefits (ex. high-quality territory, nuptial, parental investment)
Nonmaterial benefits; more indirect (higher quality offspring)
What are the 3 hypotheses of sexual selection?
Good genes hypothesis
Good health hypothesis
Handicap principle
Good Genes Hypothesis
Choose a mate with superior genotype
Good Health Hypothesis
Choose the healthiest mates
Handicap Principle
Assess mate quality via trait that is detrimental to mate health
Runaway Selection
When selection for preference is linked to selection for a trait causing the trait to be more extreme over time
Groups
Purposeful joining of individuals
What are the 3 benefits of groups?
protection
food
mating
What are the 4 possible ways to have a protection benefit in groups?
Shared vigilance
Shared defense
Numerical dilution effect
Confusion effect
Shared Vigilance (group)
More individuals = more eyes = each individual spends less time watching for predators and can spend more time feeding
Shared Defense - 2 aspects (group)
groups can attack potential predator
coordinated distraction and evasion
Numerical Dilution Effect
Reduced probability of predation for an individual during a successful attack on a group
Confusion Effect
Difficult for predators to focus on one out of many moving prey
What are the 3 aspects of a food benefit in groups?
Many individuals searching for food may be able to find rare food more easily
Probability of prey capture may increase in a group
Group may be more successful at defending food
What is an aspect of a mating benefit in groups?
Large groups attract the attention of females (Lek)
Lek
Space where animals aggregate, display, and attract the opposite sex
What are the 3 costs of groups?
Predation
Disease
Resource sharing
What are the 2 aspects of a predation cost in groups?
Large groups attract predator attention
Alarm-calling attracts attention
What is an aspect of a disease cost in groups?
There is an increased spread of parasites and pathogens
What are the 2 possible ways to have a resource sharing cost in groups?
Territory and dominance hierarchies
Interactions require energy
Why are territory and dominance hierarchies a cost for resource sharing?
Organization of resource access lets dominant individuals get more
Why are interactions that require energy a cost for resource sharing?
Both aggressive and non-aggressive/friendly interactions require energy
Social Behavior
Behavior within a species; intraspecies interactions
Is there a genetic basis to social behavior?
Yes
What are the 4 main types of social behavior?
Spitefulness
Selfishness
Cooperation
Altruism
Are social behaviors just found in animals?
No, also found in plants and bacteria
Spitefulness
Reduction of the fitness of both donor and recipient (-,-)
Examples of spitefulness?
Not observed in natural populations
Selfishness
Donor's fitness increases and recipient's fitness decreases (+,-)
Examples of selfishness?
intra-specific competition for food or space
avoidance of a predator by pushing to the center of a group
Cooperation
Donor and recipient both experience increased fitness (+,+)
Examples of cooperation?
hunting
feeding by 2 parents
protection
heat conservation
Altruism
Cost to donor and benefit to recipient (-,+)
How does altruism effect fitness?
Altruism does not lead to direct fitness, the fitness of an individual gains by passing on genes to its offspring
What are the 2 proposed mechanisms of altruism?
Reciprocal "Altruism"
Kin selection
Reciprocal "Altruism"
Altruist has expectation that the other organism will act in a similar manner at a later time
Kin Selection
Altruistic behavior increases the fitness of a relative and therefore indirectly increases the fitness of the altruist
Indirect Fitness
Fitness an individual gains through the reproduction of their relatives which passes on copies of their genes
Inclusive Fitness
The mathematical sum of direct and indirect fitness