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Representation in Congress

Debate: Large states wanted representation by population (Virginia Plan); small states wanted equal representation (New Jersey Plan).

Resolution: Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) → Bicameral legislature:

House of Representatives: by population

Senate: equal representation (2 per state).

Slavery

Debate: Southern states wanted enslaved people counted for representation but not taxation; Northern states disagreed.

Resolution: Three-Fifths Compromise → Each enslaved person counted as 3/5 for taxation + representation. Also, Congress couldn't ban slave trade until 1808.

Executive Power

Debate: How strong should the president be? How chosen?

Resolution: Single president with checks (Congress can impeach, Senate confirms appointments). Electoral College created as compromise between direct election and Congress choosing.

Federal vs. State Power

Debate: Should the central government or states hold more authority?

Resolution: Federalism → Shared powers, with Supremacy Clause making federal law supreme when in conflict.

Bill of Rights (later debate during ratification)

Debate: Federalists argued not needed; Anti-Federalists insisted to protect liberties.

Resolution: Added Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments) shortly after ratification.

Democracy

System where people hold ultimate power, either directly or through elected officials.

Representative Democracy (Republic)

People elect representatives to make laws/policies on their behalf. Prevents mob rule but ensures accountability.

Direct Democracy

Citizens vote directly on laws (ex: ballot initiatives, referendums).

Authoritarian Government

Power concentrated in a leader or small group; little citizen input, limited freedoms.

Collective Action Problems

occur when individual self-interest conflicts with the group's overall well-being, leading to suboptimal outcomes despite a shared goal

Liberty

Freedom from government control; protection of personal autonomy.

Individualism

Self-reliance, personal responsibility.

Equality

Equal legal and political rights.

Self-Government

Authority derives from the people.

Social Contract Theory

People give government authority in exchange for protection of rights (Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau).

Natural (Unalienable) Rights

Rights inherent to all people (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness). Cannot be taken away legitimately.

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. constitution. Weak central gov't, no power to tax, no executive/judiciary, hard to amend.

Shays' Rebellion (1786-87)

Massachusetts farmers rebelled over debts/taxes. Revealed weakness of Articles → push for stronger central gov't.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

Wrote new U.S. Constitution.

Enumerated Powers

Specifically listed powers in Constitution (ex: taxation, commerce regulation).

Implied Powers

Not listed, but necessary to carry out enumerated powers (Elastic Clause).

Checks and Balances

Each branch limits others (ex: veto, impeachment, judicial review).

Separation of Powers

Legislative, executive, judicial branches have distinct responsibilities.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law > state law when in conflict.

Judicial Review

Courts can strike down unconstitutional laws (Marbury v. Madison, 1803).

Federalism

Shared power between national and state governments.

Dual Federalism ("Layer Cake")

Distinct, separate powers for national vs. state gov't.

Cooperative Federalism ("Marble Cake")

Shared, overlapping responsibilities; collaboration.

Devolution

Shifting power from federal to state governments (ex: welfare reform in 1990s).

Categorical Grants

Federal $ for specific purposes, strict rules (ex: highway funds with drinking age requirement).

Block Grants

Federal $ with fewer restrictions, more state flexibility.

Policy Diffusion

States try policies that may spread to others.

Laboratories of Democracy

States test new ideas/policies before national adoption.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments; protect individuals from government power.

Selective Incorporation

Supreme Court applies Bill of Rights to states gradually via 14th Amendment.

Establishment Clause

Government cannot establish official religion.

Free Exercise Clause

People free to practice religion.

Lemon Test

Law is constitutional if: 1. Secular purpose, 2. Neither advances/inhibits religion, 3. No excessive entanglement with religion.

Kennedy v. Bremerton

Football coach praying at games protected under free exercise.

Citizens United v. FEC

Corporations/unions can spend unlimited $ on independent political ads (free speech).

Roe v. Wade

Recognized constitutional right to abortion (privacy).

Dobbs v. Jackson

Overturned Roe, abortion rights left to states.

Restrictions on First Amendment Rights

Speech can be limited if incites violence, threats, obscenity, etc.

Due Process

Fair legal procedures (5th & 14th Amendments).

Tension: Individual Freedom vs. Government Order

Balancing liberty with safety/security.

Civil Rights

Legal protections against discrimination; ensure equal treatment.

Social Movements

Groups pushing for rights (civil rights movement, women's rights, LGBTQ+).

Dred Scott v. Sandford

Enslaved people not citizens; increased tensions.

Reconstruction

13th (abolished slavery), 14th (equal protection), 15th (voting rights for Black men).

Jim Crow Laws

Segregation, disenfranchisement in the South.

Brown v. Board of Education

Struck down segregation in schools.

Civil Rights Act (1964)

Outlawed discrimination in public places, employment.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Banned literacy tests, protected voting rights.

Shelby County v. Holder

Struck down parts of VRA, allowed states more freedom in voting laws.

Obergefell v. Hodges

Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.

Civil Disobedience

Peaceful refusal to obey unjust laws (ex: MLK's Letter from Birmingham Jail).

Federalist #10

Factions are dangerous but inevitable; large republic best controls them.

Federalist #51

Separation of powers and checks & balances protect liberty.

Federalist #68

Justification of the Electoral College; prevents corruption and mob rule.