EXAM 2 CHAP 7-10 SHORT

What is cognition?

The mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using information.

What is artificial intelligence (AI)? How can AI be useful?

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of computers or machines to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence. AI can be useful for learning, problem solving, language processing, decision making, and automation.

What is thinking?

The mental manipulation of information to form concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and reason.

What are concepts and why are they important?

Concepts are mental categories used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people. They help organize information and make thinking more efficient.

Describe the prototype model and provide an example.

The prototype model suggests people compare objects to the most typical example of a category. Example: A robin is a prototype of the category "bird."

What is the difference between problem solving, reasoning, and decision making?

Problem solving is finding a solution to a problem. Reasoning is drawing conclusions from information. Decision making is choosing between alternatives.

What are subgoals?

Subgoals are smaller goals that help achieve a larger goal.

What is the difference between algorithms and heuristics?

Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed correctly. Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify problem solving but may produce errors.

What is functional fixedness?

Functional fixedness is the tendency to see an object as having only its usual function.

What is the difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning uses specific observations to form a general conclusion. Deductive reasoning uses a general rule to reach a specific conclusion.

What is loss aversion?

The tendency to prefer avoiding losses over obtaining equivalent gains.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek or interpret information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that the outcome was predictable.

What is the availability heuristic?

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

What is base rate neglect?

The tendency to ignore general statistical information and focus on specific information.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Judging the probability that something belongs to a category based on how closely it resembles the typical example.

What is critical thinking?

The process of evaluating evidence, analyzing information, and making logical judgments.

What is mindfulness?

Maintaining awareness of the present moment without judgment.

What is creative thinking?

The ability to generate original and valuable ideas.

What is the difference between divergent thinking and convergent thinking?

Divergent thinking generates many possible solutions. Convergent thinking identifies the single best solution.

What is intelligence?

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

What is validity?

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

What is reliability?

The extent to which a test produces consistent results.

What is the difference between validity and reliability?

Validity refers to accuracy, while reliability refers to consistency.

What is intelligence quotient (IQ)?

A numerical score intended to measure intelligence relative to others of the same age.

What is a normal distribution?

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which most scores cluster around the average.

What is a normal distribution in relation to intelligence scores?

Most IQ scores are near the average of 100, with fewer people having very high or very low scores.

What are culture-fair tests?

Tests designed to minimize the influence of cultural knowledge and experience.

Why is it difficult to create culture-fair tests?

Because culture influences language, experiences, values, and knowledge.

What does it mean for an individual to be gifted?

An individual has exceptionally high intellectual ability.

What is the minimum IQ score generally required for giftedness?

Approximately 130.

What does it mean for an individual to have an intellectual disability?

A condition involving significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

What is Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

A theory proposing that intelligence consists of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

What are the three types of intelligence in Sternberg's Triarchic Theory?

Analytical intelligence, Creative intelligence, Practical intelligence.

What is language?

A system of symbols and rules used to communicate.

What is the difference between syntax and semantics?

Syntax refers to the rules for arranging words into sentences. Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences.

Describe the biological influences on language development.

Language development is influenced by biological factors and an inborn capacity for language.

What is Noam Chomsky's theory of language development?

Children are born with an innate language acquisition device that helps them learn language.

Describe the environmental influences on language development.

Language develops through interaction with caregivers, exposure to language, and social experiences.

Who is Herman George Canady, Ph.D.?

An American psychologist who studied intelligence testing and demonstrated that cultural and social factors can influence test performance.

How did Herman George Canady contribute to psychology?

He helped reveal cultural bias in intelligence testing and promoted fairer psychological assessment.

What is development?

The pattern of physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that occur throughout the lifespan.

What is the difference between cross-sectional designs and longitudinal studies?

Cross-sectional designs compare different age groups at one point in time, while longitudinal studies follow the same individuals over an extended period.

What do nature and nurture refer to?

Nature refers to genetic and biological influences. Nurture refers to environmental influences and life experiences.

What is resilience?

The ability to adapt and recover from adversity, stress, or difficult life events.

What does the study of physical development focus on?

Changes in the body, brain, growth, motor skills, and biological processes across the lifespan.

What is prenatal development? What are the three stages of prenatal development (in order)?

Prenatal development is development before birth. The three stages are Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal.

What are teratogens? Provide examples.

Teratogens are environmental agents that can harm prenatal development. Examples include alcohol, tobacco, drugs, radiation, toxic chemicals, and certain infections.

What does the study of cognitive development focus on?

Changes in thinking, reasoning, memory, problem solving, language, and other mental processes.

Identify and describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive development (in order).

Sensorimotor (birth–2): learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops. Preoperational (2–7): symbolic thinking and egocentrism. Concrete Operational (7–11): logical thinking about concrete events; conservation develops. Formal Operational (12+): abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Explain assimilation and provide an example.

Assimilation is using an existing schema to understand new information. Example: A child calls every four-legged animal a dog.

Explain accommodation and provide an example.

Accommodation is changing or creating a schema to fit new information. Example: A child learns that cats and dogs are different and creates a new category.

Explain object permanence and provide an example.

Object permanence is understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. Example: A baby looks for a toy hidden under a blanket.

Explain conservation and provide an example.

Conservation is understanding that quantity remains the same even when appearance changes. Example: Knowing the same amount of water remains after being poured into a taller glass.

Explain egocentrism and provide an example.

Egocentrism is the inability to understand another person's perspective. Example: A child believes everyone sees exactly what they see.

What is executive function? Give examples.

Executive function refers to higher-level mental processes that control behavior and thinking. Examples include planning, working memory, attention, self-control, inhibition, organization, and cognitive flexibility.

What does the study of socioemotional development focus on?

Changes in emotions, personality, identity, relationships, and social behavior across the lifespan.

What is temperament?

A biologically based pattern of emotional reactions and behavior.

What is infant attachment?

The strong emotional bond between an infant and caregiver.

Describe the secure attachment style in infants.

Securely attached infants explore confidently when the caregiver is present, become upset when separated, and are comforted when the caregiver returns.

Name and describe Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development.

Trust vs. Mistrust (developing trust); Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (developing independence); Initiative vs. Guilt (taking initiative); Industry vs. Inferiority (developing competence); Identity vs. Role Confusion (developing identity); Intimacy vs. Isolation (forming close relationships); Generativity vs. Stagnation (contributing to society); Integrity vs. Despair (reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret).

Identify and describe Baumrind's four parenting styles.

Authoritative: high warmth, high control. Authoritarian: low warmth, high control. Permissive: high warmth, low control. Neglectful (Uninvolved): low warmth, low control.

What is emerging adulthood?

The transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, typically ages 18–25.

What does gender mean?

Gender refers to the socially and culturally influenced roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male, female, or another gender.

What is gender identity?

A person's internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or another gender.

What is sexual orientation?

A person's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others.

What are gender roles? Give examples.

Gender roles are society's expectations about behaviors associated with gender. Examples include beliefs about occupations, clothing, or family responsibilities.

What is the gender similarities hypothesis?

The idea that males and females are similar on most psychological characteristics.

Identify and describe Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning.

Preconventional: morality based on punishment and rewards. Conventional: morality based on rules, laws, and social approval. Postconventional: morality based on ethical principles and personal values.

What is prosocial behavior? Provide examples.

Prosocial behavior is voluntary behavior intended to benefit others. Examples include helping, sharing, comforting, cooperating, and volunteering.

Who is Ruth Winifred Howard, Ph.D.? Identify a few unique facts and her contribution to psychology.

Ruth Winifred Howard was the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Minnesota. She conducted research in developmental psychology and child development and helped increase opportunities for African Americans in psychology.

What is motivation and what are some of its characteristics?

Motivation is the process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior toward a goal. It energizes behavior, directs behavior toward goals, and helps maintain persistence.

What is an instinct?

An instinct is an innate, biologically determined pattern of behavior.

How does drive reduction theory explain motivation? What are the components of the theory? What is the difference between need and drive? What is the goal of drive reduction?

Drive reduction theory states that motivation occurs because people are driven to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. A need is a biological requirement. A drive is the psychological tension created by an unmet need. The goal is to reduce the drive by satisfying the need and restoring homeostasis.

How does optimum arousal theory explain motivation?

Optimum arousal theory states that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal by seeking stimulation when bored and reducing stimulation when overstimulated.

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law and how is it related to optimum arousal theory?

The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance is best at a moderate level of arousal. Too little or too much arousal decreases performance.

What is sexual orientation?

Sexual orientation is a person's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others.

What is the difference between pansexual and asexual?

Pansexual individuals may be attracted to people regardless of gender. Asexual individuals experience little or no sexual attraction.

Define LGBTQ community.

LGBTQ stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (or Questioning).

What are the components and order of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? Describe self-actualization.

The hierarchy is: Physiological Needs, Safety Needs, Love and Belonging, Esteem, and Self-Actualization. Self-actualization is reaching one's full potential and achieving personal growth.

How does self-determination theory explain motivation? What are the components of the theory? What is autonomy?

Self-determination theory states that motivation is strongest when three psychological needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy is the need to feel in control of one's own choices and actions.

What is the difference between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation? What are examples of each?

Intrinsic motivation comes from internal enjoyment or personal satisfaction (example: reading because you enjoy it). Extrinsic motivation comes from external rewards or avoiding punishment (example: studying for a good grade).

What is self-regulation and how does it help us achieve goals?

Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and control thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. It helps people stay focused, manage impulses, and persist toward goals.

How do psychologists define emotion? What are the components of an emotion?

Emotion is a complex psychological state involving subjective experience, physiological arousal, and behavioral expression.

Compare and contrast the James-Lange Theory, Cannon-Bard Theory, and Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.

James-Lange Theory: physiological arousal occurs first, then emotion is experienced. Cannon-Bard Theory: physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously. Two-Factor Theory: emotion results from physiological arousal combined with a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions can influence emotional experience.

Understand universal facial expressions.

Universal facial expressions are happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust, which are recognized across cultures.

How are emotions influenced by display rules? What are some examples?

Display rules are cultural norms that influence how and when emotions are expressed. For example, some cultures encourage hiding sadness or anger in public.

How are emotions categorized using the circumplex model? What is meant by valence and arousal?

The circumplex model organizes emotions based on valence and arousal. Valence refers to whether an emotion is pleasant or unpleasant. Arousal refers to the level of physiological activation or intensity.

Who is Oliva M. Espín, Ph.D.? Identify a few unique facts and how she contributed to psychology.

Oliva M. Espín is a psychologist known for her work in multicultural psychology, feminism, immigration, language, and culture. She helped increase understanding of immigrant women's experiences and the influence of culture on mental health.

What is personality?

Personality is the unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguishes one person from another.

How does the psychodynamic perspective explain personality?

The psychodynamic perspective explains personality as being shaped by unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences.

Identify and understand Freud's three structures of personality. How do the id, ego, and superego contribute to personality?

The id operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification. The ego operates on the reality principle and balances the demands of the id and superego. The superego is the moral component that represents internalized values and standards.

What are defense mechanisms? What is their purpose according to Freud? Define and provide examples of denial, displacement, and repression.

Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety. Denial is refusing to accept reality (example: refusing to believe a diagnosis). Displacement is redirecting emotions to a safer target (example: yelling at a sibling after a bad day). Repression is unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or memories from awareness.

Identify and describe Freud's four psychosexual stages of personality development (in order).

Oral: pleasure focused on the mouth. Anal: pleasure focused on bowel and bladder control. Phallic: pleasure focused on the genitals. Latency: sexual feelings are relatively inactive while children focus on school, friendships, and skills.

How do the humanistic perspectives explain personality?

The humanistic perspective explains personality by emphasizing free will, personal growth, and striving to reach one's full potential.

What is unconditional positive regard?

Unconditional positive regard is accepting and supporting a person regardless of what they say or do.

What is self-concept, and how is it related to conditions of self-worth?

Self-concept is the beliefs and perceptions a person has about themselves. Conditions of self-worth are beliefs that a person is worthy only if they meet certain expectations.