Psychopathology

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

• Repetitive behaviour performed in a bid to reduce anxiety about something e.g. washing hands

Emotional characteristics of OCD

• Anxiety about the urge to repeat an action

Cognitive characteristic of OCD

• Reoccurring thoughts that something bad is going to happen

What two things make up the biological approach to explaining OCD

Genes and neural

Explain the roles of genes in OCD

Genetic makeup can predispose some individuals to the illness. There are 230 poly genetic genes for ocd, the three candidate genes being SERT, COMT and SHTI-D. All of these genes play a key role in the regulation of serotonin and dopamine which are hormones that control our moods

Outline the neural basis of OCD

Neural explanations include the physical structures of the brain and neurotransmitters. Researchers have identified many parts of the brain that may be involved in OCD. These have been determined by the fact they function differently In people with OCD. The lateral (the side bits of) the frontal lobe are involved in OCD and can be an explanation for the behavioural and cognitive characteristics of OCD as the frontal lobe is involved in logical thinking and decision making. The left part hippocampus gurus is the part of the brain involved in processing unpleasant emotions so could explain some of the emotional characteristics of OCD. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps to regulate mood and if there is low levels of this neurotransmitter it can be a cause for OCD. This is because the normal transmission of mood relevant information does mot take place so mood and other mental processes can be affected.

Evaluation on the genetic explanation to OCD

• Supporting research evidence→ Nestadt (2010) found 68% concordance for ocd in identical twins, but only 31% in non-identical twins. This suggests ocd has a genetic component because more genes are shared in identical twins (100%) than in non-identical twins(50%) so the connection between genes and ocd can be made because there will be a positive correlation between amount of shared genetic material and concordance rates for OCD→ adds credibility to biological explanation for OCD. HOWEVER, we cannot establish a cause and effect relationship because the correlation does not take into account environmental factors such as MZ twins being identical so will be treated the same way, therefore we have no way of knowing whether the OCD is caused by genetic or environmental factors

Evaluation of neural explanation of OCD

• Real life application→ drugs SSRIs

• Discussion of research evidence→ brain scans, credible evidence however inconsistencies as no brain system has been found that always plays a role in OCD so can’t establish a cause and effect relationship as neural changes could be a result of suffering from the disorder, not necessarily the cause of it

• Reductionist→strength=enables scientific research→ weakness= ignores other factors such as trauma(environmental) meaning biological explanation is incomplete

Explain two limitations of the genetic explanation for OCD

• Difficult to test→ there are so many genes involved in OCD, psychologists have not been successful at pinning them all down and each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a fraction→ explanation is unfalsifiable

• We cannot establish a cause and effect relationship→ other factors to consider e.g. environmental→ no way of knowing if it is the genetic factors that have caused the OCD or environmental

Polygenic

OCD is this as it does not seem to be caused by a single gene but instead a combination of genetic variation

Main drug treatment for OCD

SSRIs

How do SSRIs work

Prevent the reuptake of serotonin and by doing this the SSRIs increase its levels in the synapse which means more can bind it receptors of post-synaptic neurons so the effect of serotonin is passed through the brain

What type of therapy is used for OCD

CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy)

Alternative drugs for SSRIs

1. Tricyclics

2. SNRIs

Both prevent re uptake of serotonin and norepinephrine

Re-uptake

The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed into a pre-synaptic neurone

Strengths of using SSRIs

• Cost effective→ much cheaper than therapy as you don’t have to buy as often than therapy which is more expensive= lot more accessible

• Supporting research evidence→ soomro (2009) found symptoms typically reduce for 70% of people taking SSRIs, for the remaining 30%, the most can be helped either by alternative drugs or combinations of drugs and psychological treatments suggesting that drugs appear to be helpful for most people with OCD. HOWEVER, skapinakis found cognitive and behavioural exposure therapies were an more effective treatment than SSRIs meaning drugs may not be the optimum treatment for OCD

Weaknesses of using SSRIs to treat OCD

• Side→ such as indigestion, blurred vision and loss of libido. Consequently, this means that taking drugs can reduce their quality of life and may prevent them taking them, this would make the dugs ineffective

• Evidence for side effects of SSRIs may be hidden by drug companies→ this is because researchers may be selectively publishing positive outcomes for the drugs being tested, a consequence of this may be that people taking drugs aren’t aware of the dangerous side effects

Behavioural characteristics of depression

• Sleep disruption (hypersomia or insomnia)

• Aggression Towards other people or self e.g. self harm

Emotional characteristics of depression

• Low self-esteem or self-loathing

Cognitive characteristics of depression

• A bias towards focusing on the negative rather than the positive in a situation

Two ways of explaining depression

• Ellis ABC model

• Becks cognitive theory

Ellis’s beliefs/proposition

The beliefs that we hold about such event that causes us to become depressed- irrational beliefs make impossible demands on the individual leading to depression

Ellis’s ABC model of depression

A= activating event

B= beliefs

C= consequences

Becks cognitive theory of depression

The way some people think makes them more vulnerable to depression:

• Faulty information processing- focus more on the negative

• Negative self-schemas- negative schema about oneself

Becks negative triad

Negative triad of thinking that occurs automatically, regardless of the reality of what is happening at the time

1. Negative view of the self

2. Negative view of the future

3. Negative view of the world

This cycle of negative thinking can be self-perpetuating

Two ways of treating depression

• Becks CBT

• Ellis’s REBT

Becks CBT

1. Patient asked how they perceive themself, the world, the future

2. Reality tested→ discussing whether their views is supported by evidence from real life and the therapist might make the client do something to demonstrate their ability to succeed

Ellis’s REBT ABCDE model

A=activating event

B=beliefs

C=consequences

D= dispute (challenge irrational belief)

E=effect (see a more beneficial effect on the thought and behaviour)

Two techniques used in Ellis’s REBT

1. Empirical disputing→ disputing whether there is any evidence for the irrational belief

2. Logical disputing→ disputing the logic of the irrational belief

Strengths of the cognitive approach to explaining depression

• Supporting evidence→ cohen et al found that showing cognitive vulnerability (faulty information processing processing, negative schema and/or negative triad) predicted later depression in adolescents. This supports both Becks and Ellis’s theories as both suggested negative thoughts make you more vulnerable to depression

• Real life application→ taken the two theories and applied them to CBT to help cure thousands of peoples depression

Weakness of cognitive approach to explaining depression

• Socially sensitive→ locates responsibility for depression purely with the depressed person which blaming the depressed person can be considered unfair causing moral issues

• Reductionism→ does not consider other factors involved such as biological factors such as genes meaning it is an incomplete explanation

Behavioural characteristics of phobias

• Crying, screaming or running away from a specific object

Emotional characteristics of phobias

• Anxiety about the potential of being exposed to a specific object

Cognitive characteristics of phobias

• Selective attention to a particular object at the expense of focusing on other things

Two-process Explanation of phobias

Classical conditioning→ phobia learned through one traumatic experience with a previously neutral stimulus, so traumatic that NS + UCS needs to only happen once

Operant conditioning→ if CS is avoided this behaviour is reinforcing the phobia, negatively reinforced as avoiding the phobic stimulus removes the feelings of fear that would b experienced if not avoided

Strengths of the behavioural explanation of phobias

• Real life application→ suggests that in order for patients to overcome phobias, they should not use avoidance strategies and instead should be exposed to the phobic stimulus. This has lead to the development of two ways of treating phobias e.g. exposure therapy

• Supporting research evidence→ Watson and rayner found that they could condition a neutral stimulus,a rat, with a loud bang, unconditioned stimulus, to create the unconditioned response of crying so when the stimulus is conditioned the rat creates the conditioned response of crying, now a phobia. This suggests that phobias can be acquired through the process of classical conditioning and so adds credibility to the explanation. HOWEVER, this evidence may lack ecological validity because they are not naturally occurring as the study has happened in a controlled environment

Weaknesses of the behavioural explanation to explaining phobias

• Opposing explanations→ not all people who have phobias report a traumatic experience associated with the development of their phobias→ alternative explanations= social learning theory (we learn through real models e.g. a child whose parent has a phobia are likely to imitate this behaviour and also have the phobia), psychodynamic psychology(phobias are a result of childhood experience e.g. not completing the psycho-sexual stages leading to fixations in adulthood or displaced unconscious fears of someone who has caused trauma to them), biological (evolution, causing fears for the sake of survival e.g. fear of heights and genes can make people more vulnerable to phobias)→ explanation ignores these factors and reduces phobias to an overly simplistic process which can be argues to trivialise the complexities of the disorder

• Testability→ difficult to test the cause of phobias→ would be unethical to intentionally create a phobia but when testing naturally occurring phobias it is impossible to rule out other factors that may have a contribution towards developing a phobia in order to prove a cause and effect relationship between the learning and development of a phobia→ behavioural explanation is unfalsifiable

Two treatments for phobias

1. Systematic desensitisation

2. Flooding

Systematic desensitisation

1. Anxiety hierarchy- least to most frightening

2. Relaxation techniques- e.g. breathing exercises

3. Exposure- will be exposed to their lowest level of anxiety hierarchy and make their way up when successful at avoiding feelings of anxiety

Flooding

Immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus without a gradual buildup or relaxation techniques- patient learn that no harm will actually occur(extinction) and typically works after one session

Conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response(fear)

Strength of using systematic desensitisation to treat phobias

• Support evidence→ Gilroy et al found people who received SD for a spider phobia were less fearful than control group treated with relaxation but not exposure. This suggests that it is the gradual exposure element of SD that is important and makes it an effective treatment

• Supporting evidence→ Wechsler et al found that overall research suggests that SD is effective at treating specific phobias, social phobia and agoraphobia. This suggests that SD is an affective treatment for a wide range of different types of phobias.

Weaknesses of using systematic desensitisation to treat phobias

• Takes long time to complete→ takes many sessions (4-12) to complete all three stages→ more expensive than other ways of treating phobias

• Unlikely top be effective with phobias which have not developed through a personal traumatic experience→ e.g. certain phobias like a fear of heights may be genetic due too the survival benefit of avoiding heights and so may be evolutionary rather than classically conditioned→ meaning any attempt at counterconditioning is unlikely to be effective

Strengths of using flooding to treat phobias

• supporting evidence→ ougrin found that overall research suggests flooding is comparable to other treatments including SD and cognitive therapies for specific phobias. However, research has also found that flooding is less effective for social phobia and agoraphobia suggesting that flooding is an effective treatment for some types of phobias but not others. Could be because social phobias and agoraphobia may involve more irrational thoughts (cognitive processes) which flooding does not address

• Quick way of treating phobias→ only takes one session meaning it is more cost-effective ways of treating phobias

Weaknesses of using flooding to treat phobias

• Ethical issues→ very distressing for the patient so they must understand the risks and be aware that there is no avoidance and consent to this. Furthermore, if the treatment is not effective it can make the phobia worse which the patient must also be aware of

Four types of defining abnormality

1. Statistical infrequency

2. Deviation from social norms

3. Failure to function adequately

4. Deviation from ideal mental health

Statistical infrequency

Uses human characteristics which can be reliably measured e.g. shoes size

Abnormal is considered to be anything beyond two or sometimes three standard deviations form the mean

Deviation from social norms

A social norm is a behaviour that is considered to be acceptable by most people in a society so when these norms are not followed we may define it as abnormal

Failure to function adequately

Suggests people cannot cope with the demands of daily life, the three signs are

1. No longer conforms to basic interpersonal rules e.g. maintaining eye contact in conversation

2. Someone experiences severe distress

3. Someone’s behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous

Deviation from ideal mental health

People’s behaviour strays from what is considered to be ideal mental health

Jahoda criteria

1. No symptoms of distress

2. Rational/perceive ourselves accurately

3. Self-actualisation

4. Can cope with stress

5. A realistic view of the world

6. Good self esteem/lack guilt

7. Independent

8. Successfully work, love and enjoy leisure

Strengths of defining abnormality by statistical infrequency

• Objective→ uses quantitive data and statistical analysis to determine whether behaviour is normal or not→ means decision is not based on anyone’s opinion and so is considered fair

Weakness of defining abnormality by statistical infrequency

• Doesn’t take into account the desirability of the deviation from the mean→ it classes anyone whose behaviour is rare as abnormal whether positive or negative→ means people demonstrating rare behaviours that are not the cause for concern may be considered abnormal

• Used to judge two similar people very differently→ has a arbitrary cut off point meaning two people with close scores would be treated differently

Strengths of defining abnormality by deviation from social norms

• Can take into account cultural variation→ there are different norms in different cultures→ can judge behaviour against socio-culture context in which it occurs

Weakness of using deviation from norms to define abnormality

• Subjective→ what is deemed to be a social norm by some people may not be a norm to others→ means the decision to whether behaviour is classed as abnormal or is based upon peoples opinions

Strengths of using failure to function adequately to define abnormality

• Considers the subjective experience of the individual→ a sign of this definition is when someone experiences severe distress→means it is fair definition as it does not rely on impossible standards

Weakness of using failure to function adequately to define abnormality

• Subjective→ criteria may function from person to person→ means decision as to whether behaviour is classed as abnormal or is based upon peoples opinion and so it can be considered unfair way to define abnormality

Weakness of using deviation from ideal mental health to define abnormality

• Subjective→ difficult to determine whether or not someone else is reaching criteria for ideal mental health such as successfully loving or coping with stress→ means the decision as to whether behaviour is classed as abnormal or is based upon peoples opinions so is unfair

• Culturally biased→ concepts such as independence and self-actualisation are things that are valued in western society’s and individualistic cultures → means definition does not apply to non-western or collectivist cultures

• Sets unrealistically high standards→ because for example most us feel Guilt from time to time, we often have low elf-esteem and fail to cope with stress→ meaning most us would be classed as abnormal at various points in our life