Hist 106 Bach Final Exam

Plessy v. Ferguson

establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine, legally justifying racial segregation in the U.S.

Sweatt v. Painter

the University of Texas Law School must admit Heman Sweatt, an African American, because the separate law school created for Black students was inherently unequal, violating the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, even under the "separate but equal" doctrine

Brown v. Board

declared state-sponsored segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson

Brown II

decreed that the dismantling of separate school systems for Black and white students could proceed with "all deliberate speed"

Emmet Till

murdered by racist whites

massive resistance

a widespread, organized strategy by Southern states and white segregationists to block school desegregation after the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision, using laws to withhold funds, close schools, create private academies, and employing intimidation and violence to maintain racial separation

southern manifesto

Statement by Southern members of Congress opposing Brown v. Board of Education, arguing for states’ rights and encouraging resistance to school desegregation

• lyndon b johnson did not sign it

montgomery bus boycott

Mass protest in Montgomery, Alabama, where African Americans boycotted city buses after Rosa Parks’ arrest, leading to a Supreme Court ruling that ended bus segregation and launching Martin Luther King Jr. as a civil rights leader

Martin Luther King Jr.

Civil rights leader who advocated nonviolent protest to end racial segregation and discrimination; led the Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped secure major civil rights legislation in the 1950s–60s

civil rights act of 1957

First civil rights law since Reconstruction; aimed to protect African Americans’ voting rights by creating the Civil Rights Division in the Justice Department and the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

the little rock nine

Group of nine African American students who integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, under federal protection, demonstrating the federal government’s enforcement of school desegregation

end of korean war

Korea was divided at the 38th parallel after WWII; Eisenhower’s threat to use nuclear weapons helped pressure both sides into a 1953 armistice, ending the fighting but not the war

massive retaliation

U.S. Cold War strategy under Eisenhower promising a full nuclear response to any communist attack, aiming to deter aggression without large conventional forces

brinksmanship

old War strategy of pushing a dangerous situation to the edge of war to force an opponent to back down, often linked to Eisenhower and the threat of nuclear weapons

rolling back communism

U.S. Cold War policy of actively reducing or eliminating communist influence in countries, rather than just containing it, often through political, economic, or military means

CIA in Iran and Guatemala

The CIA orchestrated covert operations to overthrow governments seen as pro-communist or threatening U.S. interests—Iran (1953) ousted Prime Minister Mossadegh, and Guatemala (1954) removed President Arbenz—reflecting Cold War anti-communist policy

domino theory

Cold War idea that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow, used to justify U.S. intervention in Vietnam and elsewhere

Geneva Accords

Agreement that temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with Ho Chi Minh’s communists in the North and a non-communist government in the South, setting the stage for U.S. involvement

Dien Bien Phu

Decisive battle in Vietnam where Vietnamese forces defeated the French, ending French colonial rule and leading to the Geneva Accords dividing Vietnam

election of 1956

Incumbent Dwight D. Eisenhower (Republican) was re‑elected president, defeating Adlai Stevenson (Democrat) in a landslide, maintaining U.S. Cold War leadership and domestic popularity

Hungarian Revolution

Uprising in Hungary against Soviet control and communist rule; initially successful, it was crushed by Soviet forces, demonstrating limits of U.S. intervention during the Cold War

Suez Crisis

Conflict in Egypt when President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, leading Britain, France, and Israel to invade; the U.S. and USSR pressured them to withdraw, showing Cold War tensions and rising U.S. influence in the Middle East

sputnik

First artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union, sparking the Space Race. In response, Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 to advance U.S. space exploration and compete with Soviet technology

U-2 spy plane incident

A U.S. spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union, exposing American surveillance; the event heightened Cold War tensions and caused the collapse of a planned U.S.-Soviet summit

cuban revolution

Armed revolt led by Fidel Castro that overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista, establishing a communist government allied with the Soviet Union. In response, Eisenhower cut diplomatic and economic ties with Cuba, escalating Cold War tensions in the Americas

roots of rock and roll

Music style that emerged in the 1950s combining blues, country, jazz, and gospel, popularized by artists like Elvis Presley, and became a defining sound of youth culture

country music

Genre originating in the southern United States, blending folk, blues, and gospel; often features storytelling lyrics and acoustic instruments, and became widely popular in the 20th century

jazz

American music genre that originated in New Orleans in the early 20th century, combining African rhythms, blues, and improvisation, known for its syncopation, swing, and expressive solos

Sam Cooke and “A Change is Gonna Come”

written after MLK walk in Washington

early rockers

Musicians in the 1950s who popularized rock and roll, including Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Buddy Holly, blending blues, country, and rhythm-and-blues for a youthful audience

taming of rock

1950s trend where record companies and media softened rock and roll to appeal to mainstream audiences, downplaying its rebellious and African American roots. Meanwhile, British bands later kept playing the original, harder-edged rock, preserving its early style and energy

surf groups

1960s bands that played upbeat, guitar-driven rock inspired by California surf culture, like The Beach Boys. Their music reflected the optimism and youthful energy of JFK’s New Frontier era

motown

Motown: Record label founded by Berry Gordy in Detroit in 1959 that popularized soul and R&B music with artists like The Supremes, Martha and the Vandellas, and Marvin Gaye. Motown reflected the progress of the Civil Rights Movement by achieving mainstream success and exemplifying peaceful racial integration in music audiences.

folk

Genre emphasizing traditional songs and acoustic instruments, often featuring social and political messages. Popular in the 1960s with artists like Bob Dylan, it articulated young people’s feelings about war, racism, and the military-industrial complex, reflecting youth activism and the Civil Rights Movement

the beatles

British rock band from Liverpool who became globally famous in the 1960s. They rejuvenated rock, bringing African American–rooted music back to American audiences, crossed gender lines with fans of all ages, and highlighted the generation gap, shaping youth culture and social change

psychedelic rock

1960s rock style inspired by psychedelic culture and hallucinogenic experiences, featuring distorted guitars, experimental sounds, and surreal lyrics; reflected the counterculture, rebellion, and exploration of consciousness

new left militancy

Radical activism in the 1960s and 1970s by young Americans advocating for civil rights and the antiwar movement. It included calls for revolution, campus riots, and draft card burning, reflected in music like The Rolling Stones’ “Street Fighting Man” and Creedence Clearwater Revival’s “Fortunate Son”, highlighting youth resistance to authority and the Vietnam War

country rock

1970s music style that blended rock and country elements, with artists like The Eagles, combining electric guitars and rock rhythms with country storytelling, appealing to both rock and country audiences

late 1960s country

Traditional country music that maintained roots in storytelling and acoustic instruments, reflecting the conservatism of the “silent majority”, opposition to hippie culture and civil unrest, and attitudes like “my country, right or wrong”, emphasizing patriotism and traditional values

election of 1960

John F. Kennedy won the presidency and gained strong support from Black voters after he personally intervened to help secure Martin Luther King Jr.’s release from jail, while Richard Nixon refused. Kennedy also appeared youthful and confident, whereas Nixon seemed messy and deceitful, helping Kennedy win key swing states and about 70% of the African American vote, which was crucial to his victory

housing act

Law signed by JFK to fund urban renewal, improve public housing, and assist low-income families, aiming to modernize cities and address housing shortages in the United States

the peace corps

Program created by JFK sending American volunteers abroad to assist with education, health, and development projects, promoting international goodwill and cultural exchange

alliance for progress

JFK’s initiative to promote economic development and social reform in Latin America, aiming to strengthen ties with the U.S. and prevent the spread of communism

equal pay act

Law signed by JFK requiring that men and women receive equal pay for equal work, marking a major step toward gender workplace equality in the United States

JFK and civil rights

moved slowly on civil rights legislation because he feared alienating Southern Democrats and conservative voters, and much of his legislative agenda was blocked by the conservative coalition in Congress, limiting immediate progress on integration and voting rights

bay of pigs

Failed CIA-backed attempt by Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro, embarrassing JFK and strengthening Cuba’s ties to the Soviet Union

cuban missile crisis

13-day standoff between the U.S. and the Soviet Union after Soviet nuclear missiles were found in Cuba; JFK negotiated a Soviet withdrawal in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and the removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey, avoiding nuclear war

nuclear test ban treaty

Agreement signed by the U.S., U.S.S.R., and U.K. banning nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, aiming to reduce nuclear fallout and ease Cold War tensions

ngo dinh diem

Anti-communist leader of South Vietnam (1955–1963); supported by the U.S. as a bulwark against communism, but his corrupt and repressive regime led to growing opposition and his assassination in a CIA-backed coup

jfk assassination

President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald (according to official investigations), shocking the nation and ending his presidency abruptly

sit ins

Nonviolent civil rights protests in which African Americans sat at segregated lunch counters and refused to leave, challenging segregation laws and inspiring widespread activism among young people

SNCC

Organization of young civil rights activists that coordinated sit-ins, freedom rides, and voter registration drives, playing a key role in the student-led movement for racial equality

Lyndon b. Johnson

JFK’s vice president who became president after JFK’s assassination (1963); used his political skill to pass civil rights legislation and launch the Great Society

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Landmark law signed by LBJ that banned segregation in public places and discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; strengthened federal enforcement of civil rights

voting rights act of 1965

Eliminated racial discrimination in voting, outlawed literacy tests and poll taxes, and allowed the federal government to oversee elections in areas with a history of voter suppression, dramatically increasing African American voter registration

freedom summer

Campaign in Mississippi to register African American voters and challenge Jim Crow laws, marked by violence against activists, including the murders of three civil rights workers

selma to montgomery marches

Series of marches for voting rights that faced violent opposition from authorities; “Bloody Sunday” led to national outrage and helped pass the Voting Rights Act

economic opportunity act

Created programs like Job Corps, Head Start, and VISTA to fight poverty, expand education, and improve job training, key parts of LBJ’s Great Society

war on poverty

LBJ’s initiative to reduce poverty nationwide through education, job programs, healthcare, and community development, reflecting his vision for the Great Society

medicare

Federal health insurance program for Americans 65 and older, providing access to healthcare as part of the Great Society

medicaid

Federal-state program providing healthcare for low-income Americans, another cornerstone of LBJ’s Great Society

Elementary and Secondary Education Act

Provided federal funding to improve schools, especially in low-income areas, aiming to reduce education inequality

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Abolished national origin quotas, opening the U.S. to immigrants from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, supporting civil rights and diversity

Great Society

LBJ’s ambitious domestic agenda to eliminate poverty, reduce racial injustice, expand education, and improve healthcare and housing, building on New Deal programs

black power movement

Emerged as some activists sought more militant approaches for civil rights, emphasizing racial pride, economic empowerment, and self-defense

urban riots

Sparked by racial inequality and police brutality, highlighting ongoing struggles for civil rights despite legislative progress

Stokely Carmichael

Leader in SNCC, promoted Black Power in the late 1960s

john lewis

Young leader in SNCC, key organizer of Freedom Rides and Selma marches

barry goldwater

Opposed Civil Rights Act, representing conservative backlash

freedom rides

Integrated groups of activists who traveled by bus through the South to challenge segregation in interstate travel facilities; riders faced violence and arrests, drawing national attention to civil rights issues

Tonkin Gulf Resolution

Congressional resolution giving President Johnson broad authority to use military force in Vietnam after reported attacks on U.S. ships, effectively escalating U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War

operation rolling thunder

Sustained U.S. bombing campaign against North Vietnam during the Vietnam War, aimed at weakening enemy forces and pressuring North Vietnam to negotiate, but it failed to stop the war

search and destroy

U.S. military strategy of seeking out Viet Cong forces, engaging them in combat, and destroying them, often causing heavy civilian casualties and fueling antiwar opposition

teach ins

Informal college-based discussions and lectures where students and faculty debated U.S. involvement in Vietnam, raising awareness and organizing antiwar activism

fullbright hearings

Senate hearings led by Senator J. William Fulbright that questioned U.S. policy and escalation in Vietnam, providing a national platform for critics of the war and influencing public opinion

tet offensive

Coordinated Viet Cong and North Vietnamese attacks on over 100 South Vietnamese cities during the Vietnamese Lunar New Year (Tet); while a military defeat for communists, it shocked the U.S. public and eroded support for the war

MLK assassination

Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, sparking nationwide riots and deepening the struggle for racial equality in the U.S

Robert Kennedy assassination

Senator and Democratic presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles shortly after winning the California primary, shocking the nation and ending his campaign for president

violence at DNC in Chicago

During the Democratic National Convention, police clashed with antiwar protesters, leading to national outrage and highlighting the deep divisions over the Vietnam War and U.S. politics

end of new deal coalition

The traditional alliance of labor unions, urban voters, African Americans, and Southern whites that supported Democratic policies began to break down due to civil rights tensions, Vietnam War divisions, and cultural changes, reshaping U.S. politics

the new left

Political movement led by young activists focused on civil rights, antiwar protests, and social reforms, challenging traditional authority and advocating participatory democracy, equality, and cultural change

students for a democratic society (SDS)

Student activist organization that led protests against the Vietnam War, racism, and social injustice, advocating for participatory democracy and becoming a central group in the New Left movement

Port Huron Statement

Founding manifesto of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) calling for participatory democracy, civil rights, and opposition to the Cold War, inspiring the New Left movement

free speech movement (FSM)

Student protest at the University of California, Berkeley demanding the right to political expression on campus, sparking broader college activism for civil rights and antiwar causes

draft avoidance and resistance

Actions by young Americans to avoid or resist military service during the Vietnam War, including draft card burning, fleeing to Canada, and legal challenges, fueling antiwar activism and controversy

march on the pentagon

Massive anti-Vietnam War protest in Washington, D.C., where demonstrators confronted U.S. military officials at the Pentagon, symbolizing growing public opposition to the war

riots in detroit and newark

Major urban uprisings fueled by racial inequality, police brutality, and poverty, resulting in dozens of deaths, widespread property damage, and highlighting ongoing struggles despite civil rights legislation

Kerner report

Government study on urban riots concluding that racism, segregation, and poverty were primary causes, warning that the U.S. risked becoming “two societies, one black, one white” without major reforms

Columbia university siege

Student-led occupation of campus buildings protesting university ties to the Vietnam War and construction on Harlem land, reflecting broader campus activism and New Left militancy

the weathermen

Radical offshoot of the New Left and SDS that used bombings and violent tactics to protest the Vietnam War and systemic racism, advocating revolutionary change

days of rage

Violent protests in Chicago by the Weather Underground aimed at “bringing the war home” and challenging U.S. policies in Vietnam, marking a turn toward militant activism in the antiwar movement

townhouse explosion

Accidental detonation of explosives in a New York City townhouse used by the Weather Underground, killing three members and highlighting the dangers of militant antiwar tactics

counterculture

Social movement of youth rejecting mainstream values, embracing peace, love, communal living, and alternative lifestyles, often associated with hippies, psychedelic music, and antiwar activism

hippies

• made up most of the counterculture

• thought protesting was a waste of time and that personal transformation would change society

counterculture opposed “the establishment”

opposed judges, courts, politicians, the military, and universities

drugs and counterculture

Many in the counterculture, including hippies, used psychedelics, marijuana, and other drugs as a way to expand consciousness, reject mainstream society, and explore alternative lifestyles

summer of love

Cultural phenomenon centered in San Francisco, where thousands of hippies gathered to celebrate peace, love, music, and alternative lifestyles, symbolizing the height of the counterculture movement

yippies

Radical youth group combining counterculture and political protest, using theater, pranks, and demonstrations to challenge “the Establishment” and draw attention to social and antiwar issues

• threatened to spike chicago’s water supply with lsd

communes

Intentional communities where hippies and counterculture members lived together, sharing resources, labor, and values to reject mainstream society and experiment with alternative lifestyles

woodstock festival

Legendary music festival in New York that drew hundreds of thousands of young people, celebrating peace, music, and counterculture values, and becoming a symbol of the 1960s hippie movement