Metaphysics of God 3 Markers

What does omnipotent mean? 

Omnipotence means all-powerful. In the Abrahamic religions, it is traditionally understood as one of the main attributes of God, who is considered to have every perfection. This understanding is accepted by many theologians including Saint Anselm.  

How does Aquinas define God’s omnipotence? 

Aquinas argues God’s omnipotence stems from His aseity, His state of existence as an absolutely independent being containing His own reason of existence, and His perfection, His ability to create effects limitless in number and intensity. Aquinas argues God cannot sin, as this is logically impossible, contradicting His own nature as an immutable and all-loving being.  

How does Anselm define God’s omnipotence? 

Anselm defines God as ‘a being than which no greater can be conceived’, able to do anything including the logically impossible. He suggests this can be understood a priori, even by ‘the fool’. 

What does omniscient mean? 

Omniscience is the capacity to know everything. In the Abrahamic religions, it is traditionally understood as one of the main attributes of God, linked to his apparent infinite wisdom. This understanding is accepted by many theologians including Saint Anselm. 

What does omnibenevolent mean? 

Omnibenevolence means all-loving. In the Abrahamic religions, it is traditionally understood as one of the main attributes of God, accepted by many theologians including Saint Anselm, with terms like ‘moral perfection’ often used by theists to designate the same concept.  

Explain the meaning of omnipotence and omniscience when used to describe God's nature. 

Omnipotence means all-powerful and omniscience means all-knowing. These are traditionally understood as two of the main attributes of the Abrahamic God, who lacks no perfection and cannot be limited by anything outside of Himself. 

What does it mean to claim that God is everlasting?  

To claim that God is everlasting, is to argue that a temporal God has always existed and will always exist. This understanding is accepted by some theologians including Nicholas Wolterstorff, as it easily accounts for the traditional conception of the Abrahamic God forming personal relationships with humans. 

What does it mean to claim that God is eternal? 

To claim that God is eternal, is to argue that God exists outside of time. This understanding is accepted by some theologians including Eleonore Stump and Normal Kretzmann, as it emphasises the limitlessness and ineffability of God’s nature.  

Explain the difference between the claims ‘God is eternal’ and ‘God is everlasting’. 

An everlasting God exists forever temporally with no beginning or end, whilst an eternal God exists outside of time altogether, experiencing everything at once as a single, permanent event.  

What is the paradox of the stone? 

The paradox of the stone questions the concept of omnipotence, examining whether an all-powerful God would be able to do literally anything, or would be limited to the realms of the logically possible. The paradox is expressed in the question: ‘Can God create a stone so heavy that He cannot lift it?’ 

What is the Euthyphro dilemma? 

The Euthyphro dilemma found in Plato’s dialogue Euthyphro presents an issue regarding the compatibility of omnipotence and omnibenevolent. It asks whether God decides what is moral (e.g. through divine revelation) or whether He simply commands us to do what is moral in accordance with a moral law that exists outside of Him. 

What is an ontological argument?      

An ontological argument is an argument for God’s existence that only employs premises derived from a theistic world view. These premises are nearly always a priori, necessary and analytic, and often depend on a given definition of God. Ontological arguments have been made by many philosophers including Saint Anselm and Rene Descartes. 

In his ontological argument, how does Anselm define God? 

In his ontological argument, Anselm defines God as a ‘being than which no greater can be conceived’, the greatest possible being. He suggests this can be understood a priori, even by ‘the fool’.  

In his ontological argument, how does Descartes define God? 

In his ontological argument, Descartes defines God as a ‘supremely perfect being’, containing every perfection. He considers this ‘a clear and distinct idea’, discernable through a priori reasoning. 

State the definitions of God used by a) Anselm and b) Descartes in their ontological arguments. 

In his ontological argument, Anselm defines God as a ‘being than which no greater can be conceived’, the greatest possible being. Similarly, Descartes defines God as a ‘supremely perfect being’, containing every perfection in his ontological argument.  

What does Anselm mean when he says God has necessary existence? 

Anselm argues that God’s existence is analytically true. He defines God as the greatest conceivable being and argues that it is better to exist in reality than merely in the mind. Therefore, God exists necessarily.  

What does Malcolm mean when he says God has necessary existence? 

Malcolm argues that God can neither come into existence nor pass out of existence. It follows from this that if God exists, then his existence is necessary and that if he doesn’t exist, then his existence is impossible. Since it is possible for God to exist, He exists necessarily. 

Explain the difference between a necessary and contingent being. 

Contingent beings depend on necessary beings for their existence, whilst necessary beings do not. Many theists believe that God is the ultimate necessary being, dependent on nothing but Himself to sustain His existence, and that everything else in the universe is contingent on Him. 

What does Kant mean when he says existence is not a predicate? 

Kant argues that existence cannot be an essential property of an entity in the way that, say, colour or size can be. This is because, unlike saying that something is red or large, describing something as existing does not add anything to its concept, making existence a synthetic rather than analytic property.  

What is a teleological argument? 

A teleological argument, often known as an argument from design, is an inductive a posteriori argument that complex functionality apparent in the natural world implies the existence of an intelligent designer.  

What is natural theology? 

Natural theology seeks to provide knowledge of the existence or nature of God through reason, logic and empirical evidence. Aquinas’ ‘five ways’ are examples of arguments for God’s existence through natural theology. 

What is revealed theology? 

Revealed theology seeks to provide knowledge of the existence or nature of God through faith. For instance, many Christians believe knowledge of God is gained through divine revelation, both in the divinely inspired Bible and through private revelation, for instance the granting of miracles. 

What does Paley mean by purpose? 

By purpose, Paley means regularities in co-presence in the natural world which seem indicated towards specific ends, allegedly suggesting intelligent design. For instance, birds having wings perfectly suited to flight would, to Paley, be evidence that birds were designed by God with this purpose in my mind.  

What does Swinburne mean by spatial order? 

Swinburne uses spatial order to mean regularities of co-presence, the arrangement of parts in the universe in orderly patterns. For instance, birds having wings perfectly suited to flight would be an example of spatial order. 

What does Swinburne mean by temporal order? 

Swinburne uses temporal order to mean regularities of succession, orderly processes that operate the same way every time. For instance, the existence of ‘natural laws’ such as evolution and gravity would be examples of temporal order. 

What does Hume mean when he says that the design argument is an argument from a unique case? 

By pointing out that the design argument is an argument from a unique case, Hume is arguing that teleological arguments for God are unconvincing as they rely on the experience of only one universe to make inductive claims about all universes.  

What is a cosmological argument? 

Cosmological arguments claim through a posteriori inductive reasoning that God’s existence can be established as the required explanation of what exists. Cosmological arguments have been made by many philosophers and theologians including Thomas Aquinas and Rene Descartes. 

What is the casual principle? 

Casuality is a metaphysical principle which posits that every effect has a cause. It underpins much of the scientific method and empiricism in general. 

What is the principle of sufficient reason? 

The principle of sufficient reason, associated with the Enlightenment thinker Gotfried Leibniz, is a metaphysical principle that posits that a sufficient explanation, either a reason or a cause, for everything in the universe necessarily exists. 

What is the fallacy of the composition? 

The fallacy of the composition is a formal fallacy that arises when one infers that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole. For instance, ‘this car’s tire is made of rubber; therefore, the car as a whole is also made of rubber.’  

What is natural evil? 

Natural evil is suffering caused by events beyond human control, derived from the laws of nature. An example of natural evil would be the existence of deadly diseases such as malaria.  

What is moral evil? 

Moral evil is suffering as a result of morally wrong human actions and so can be attributed to human free will. An example of moral evil would be a health insurance company denying legitimate medical claims to bolster profit. 

What is the difference between moral and natural evil?  

Moral evil is suffering as a result of morally wrong human actions whilst natural evil is suffering caused by events beyond human control. An example of moral evil would be a health insurance company denying legitimate medical claims to bolster profit; whilst an example of natural evil would be the existence of deadly diseases such as malaria.  

What is the problem of evil? 

The problem of evil is the theological question of whether the existence of an omnipotent omnibenevolent God is compatible with the existence of suffering. It is associated with the Greek philosopher Epicurus and was popularised by Enlightenment thinker David Hume. 

What is the evidential problem of evil? 

The problem of asks whether the existence of an omnipotent omnibenevolent God is compatible with the existence of suffering. Evidential problems of evil argue that this is improbable but not logically impossible. 

What is the logical problem of evil? 

The problem of evil asks whether the existence of an omnipotent omnibenevolent God is compatible with the existence of suffering. Logical problems of evil argue this is logically impossible. 

What is the free will defence? 

The free will defence, associated with Alvin Platinga, argues that God is not responsible for moral evil as this is a consequence of human free will. Therefore, the existence of an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God is not logically incompatible with suffering. 

What is a theodicy? 

A theodicy is an argument that attempts to resolve the problem of evil that arises when omnipotence and omnibenevolence are simultaneously ascribed to God. Unlike a defence, which merely tries to demonstrate that the coexistence of God and evil is logically possible, a theodicy provides a framework wherein God and evil's existence is considered plausible. 

Briefly outline the Augustinian theodicy. 

The Augustinian theodicy asserts that an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God exists and created a perfect world free of suffering. However, out of his moral perfection, God gave humans free will, which was used for moral evil by Adam and Eve, who disobeyed God in the garden of Eden. Natural evil is a consequence of this original sin, which led to the corruption of the natural world.  

Briefly outline the soul making theodicy. 

The soul making theodicy asserts that our world is the best of all possible worlds, and the existence of evil is justified as it allows humans to fully develop themselves. For instance, John Hick argues that only through experiencing suffering can humans achieve spiritual maturity and come to know God freely.