Comprehensive Biology and Human Body Systems Review

Flashcards covering biology basics, cell theory, anatomy, physiology, and taxonomy based on lecture notes.

Who were the Dutch spectacle makers credited with inventing the first compound microscope in the late 1500s?

Hans and Zacharias Janssen

Which individual was the first to observe 'animalcules' and is known as the Father of Microbiology?

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

What is the significance of the year 1665 in cellular biology history?

Robert Hooke discovered cells by observing cork and coined the term 'cells' from 'cellulae'.

What are the three core principles (postulates) of the Cell Theory?

1. The cell is the basic unit of life. 2. Every living organism consists of one or more cells. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

What is the theory of Biogenesis, and who proposed it in 1858?

Proposed by Rudolf Virchow, it states that all living cells come from pre-existing cells ('omnis cellula e cellula').

What is the difference between Anabolism and Catabolism in metabolism?

Anabolism builds up molecules, while Catabolism breaks down molecules to release energy.

List the levels of organization for living things in order from the simplest to most complex.

Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism

What are the primary differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles and are smaller/simpler (e.g., bacteria). Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles and are larger/more complex (e.g., plants, animals).

What is the structure of the plasma membrane's phospholipid bilayer?

It consists of hydrophilic phosphate heads (water-loving) and hydrophobic fatty acid tails (water-repelling).

What organelle is responsible for protein synthesis and receives instructions from mRNA?

Ribosomes

What is the function of the Nucleolus within the nucleus?

It is a dense region where small organelles essential for making proteins are assembled and where ribosomes are produced.

Differentiate between the functions of the Rough ER and the Smooth ER.

Rough ER has ribosomes and modifies proteins (glycoproteins). Smooth ER has no ribosomes, produces lipids (fats), makes lipid-based hormones, and detoxifies substances.

What is the role of the Golgi Apparatus?

It modifies, packages, and ships proteins after they leave the Rough ER.

Define Phagocytosis and Autophagy as performed by lysosomes.

Phagocytosis is the digestion of food/particles. Autophagy is the breakdown of damaged organelles.

What is the function of Peroxisomes, and what chemical do they use?

They use hydrogen peroxide ($H_2O_2$) to break down fats, proteins, and toxins, eventually turning the $H_2O_2$ into water and oxygen.

Which organelle is considered the 'powerhouse of the cell' and is the site of ATP production?

Mitochondria

Match the plant plastid to its function: Chloroplast, Chromoplast, and Leucoplast.

Chloroplast: Photosynthesis (green). Chromoplast: Stores pigment for color in fruits/flowers. Leucoplast: Storage of starch, oils, or proteins.

What are fungal cell walls made of?

Chitin

What is a Plasmid in a prokaryotic cell?

An independent extra circular DNA that carries genes and can confer advantages like antibiotic resistance.

What are the three types of Passive Transport defined in the notes?

1. Diffusion (small/nonpolar molecules). 2. Facilitated Diffusion (uses transport proteins). 3. Osmosis (movement of water through aquaporins).

Define the conditions of Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic solutions.

Isotonic: Equal solute concentration; cell remains normal. Hypotonic: Lower solute outside; water enters cell; cell swells/bursts. Hypertonic: Higher solute outside; water leaves cell; cell shrinks.

What is the difference between Cytolysis and Plasmolysis?

Cytolysis is the bursting of an animal cell in a hypotonic solution. Plasmolysis is the shrinking of a plant cell membrane away from the cell wall in a hypertonic solution.

What are the three types of Endocytosis?

Phagocytosis (cell eating), Pinocytosis (cell drinking), and Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis (highly specific molecule binding).

Briefly describe the stages of Protein Synthesis: Transcription vs. Translation.

Transcription happens in the nucleus where DNA is copied into mRNA. Translation happens in the ribosome where mRNA is read to form a polypeptide chain.

Write the chemical equation for Cellular Respiration.

$$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP$$

What are the three main stages of Cellular Respiration?

1. Glycolysis (cytoplasm, anaerobic). 2. Krebs Cycle (mitochondrial matrix, aerobic). 3. Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis (inner mitochondrial membrane, aerobic).

Write the chemical equation for Photosynthesis.

$$6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$$

In photosynthesis, what occurs during the light-dependent reactions of the thylakoids?

Light is captured by chlorophyll and Photolysis occurs, where water is split into protons, electrons, and oxygen (released as a byproduct).

What happens during the Calvin Cycle in the stroma?

$CO_2$ is fixed to RuBP by the enzyme RuBisCo, using ATP and NADPH to produce G3P, which forms glucose.

Define the phases of Mitosis (PMAT).

Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle forms. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the center. Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate 'away'. Telophase: Chromosomes at poles, nuclei reform.

What is 'crossing-over', and when does it occur during Meiosis?

The exchange of genetic info between homologous chromosomes occurring during Prophase I.

What is the difference between the Lytic Cycle and the Lysogenic Cycle of viral replication?

In the Lytic Cycle, the virus destroys the host cell immediately to release new viruses. In the Lysogenic Cycle, viral DNA hides within the host genome (prophage) and replicates with the host.

What is a Retrovirus, and what enzyme does it use?

A virus that uses RNA to produce DNA (e.g., HIV) using the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

Name the four primary types of animal tissues.

Epithelium, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue, and Nervous tissue.

Distinguish between Tendons and Ligaments.

Tendons connect muscle to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone.

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

1. Skeletal (voluntary, striated). 2. Cardiac (involuntary, striated, branched, intercalated discs). 3. Smooth (involuntary, non-striated, spindle-shaped).

Describe the air pathway in the Respiratory System.

Nasal cavity -> Pharynx -> Larynx -> Trachea -> Bronchi -> Bronchioles -> Alveoli.

Trace the path of blood through the Heart starting from the Vena Cava.

Vena Cava -> Right Atrium -> Tricuspid Valve -> Right Ventricle -> Pulmonary Valve -> Pulmonary Artery -> Lungs -> Pulmonary Veins -> Left Atrium -> Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve -> Left Ventricle -> Aortic Valve -> Aorta.

Which brain structure controls motor control, balance, and coordination?

Cerebellum

What are the three parts of the Small Intestine in order?

Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum.

What are the characteristics of the Animal Kingdom 'Arthropoda'?

Jointed legs and an exoskeleton (e.g., insects, spiders, crabs).