A & P - Chapter 1

Anatomy

- The study of the structure of an organism.

Physiology

- The study of the function of a living organism and its components.

Anatomical Positioning

- Facing forward, palms up.

Axis

- Imaginary midline around which the body pivots.

Axial Skeleton

- Head and trunk.
- Spinal cord is the axis.

Appendicular Skeleton

- Lower and upper limbs (arms and legs)

Neuraxis

- Axis of the brain.
- Brainstem is typically the axis.

Frontal Plane

- Front and back halves.

Midsagittal Plane

- Exact right and left halves.

Sagittal Plane

- Right and left halves that are not exact.

Transverse Plane

- Top and bottom halves.

Coronal Plane

- Front and back portions

Anterior or Ventral Surface

- Front

Posterior or Dorsal Surface

- Back

Rostral

- Towards the head.

Superficial Surface

- On the surface.

Peripheral Surface

- Directed toward the surface.
- (going toward the surface).

Deep

- Going to the middle.

Distal

- Towards the edge.

Proximal

- Towards the midline.

Superior

- Above
- Father from the ground.

Inferior

- Below
- Closer to the ground

Prone

- Horizontal, face down, on belly.

Supine

- Horizontal, face up, on back.

Lateral

- To the side.

Medial

- Toward the median plane.

Flexion

- Bending at a joint.

Extension

- Strengthening out a joint.

Plantar

- On the foot.

Palmar

- On the palm.

Trunk or Torso

- Composed of the thorax (chest) and abdomen (belly).

Dorsal Trunk

- The back

The Pelvis

- Formed by the hip bones.

Upper and Lower Extremities

- Attached to the trunk.

Caput/Head/Skull

- Located on the top of the trunk.

Cranial Portion

- Contains the brain and its components.

Facial Portion

- Contains mouth, pharynx, nasal cavity, and structures related to the upper airway and mastication.

Cranial Cavity

- Brain
- Vertebral Canal
o Contains spinal cord.

Thoracic Cavity

- Lungs and related structures.

Pericardial Cavity

- Heart

Abdominal Cavity

- Digestive Organs

Organs

- Body tissues combined together to perform a special function.
- Organ tissues all serve the same general purpose (depending on the structure).

Tissues of the Body

- Epithelial Tissue
- Connective Tissue
- Muscular Tissue
- Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

- Covers the surfaces of the body.
o Skin & superficial layer of the mucous membranes.
- The linings of the cavities and passageways.

Epithelial Tissue Roles

- Acts as a barrier against hostile agents.
- Prevents dehydration and fluid loss.

Mucous membrane arises from the:

- Epithelium

Cilial Tissue

- Some epithelial tissue contains cilia.
- Ex. Ear

Cilia

- Hair-like protrusions that move matter from one location to another.

Basement Membrane (Baseplate)

- Collagen that underlies the epithelium.
- Filters, stabilizes, and directs growth patterns of epithelium.

Connective Tissue

- Binds together and supports tissues and organs.
- Composed of matrix.
- May be solid, liquid, or gel-like.

Matrix

- Intercellular material that holds or constrains another material.

Types of Connective Tissue

- Areolar Tissue
- Fibrous Tissue
- Cartilage
- Blood
- Bone

Areolar Tissue

- Loose supportive connective tissue.
o Interstitial (space between organs)
o Adipose (significant fat deposits)
o Lymphoid tissue

Fibrous Tissue

- Binds structures together.

Cartilage

- Connective tissue embedded in matrix.
- Can withstand significant compressive and tensile forces.

Blood

- Plasma and blood cells

Bone

- Hardest form of connective tissue.

Connective Tissue Protective Functions

- Fibroblasts
- Macrophages
- Lymphocytes
- Mast Cells

Fibroblasts

- Produces extracellular matrix.
- Synthesize and secrete protein.
- Wound repair.
- Facilitate bone repair & help protect bones.

Macrophages

- Collection of waste or dead tissue.

Lymphocytes

- Defend against viral attacks and destroy viral agents.
- Excreted by lymph nodes.

Mast Cells

- Provide inflammation for protection.

Muscular Tissue

- Contractile
o Muscles can only contract.

Muscular Tissue Classification:

- Voluntary striated muscle.
- Involuntary smooth muscle.
- Cardiac muscle.

Voluntary Striated Muscle

- Skeletal Muscle
- Part of the somatic system.

Involuntary Smooth Muscle

- Digestive tract
- Blood vessels
Part of the autonomic system

Cardiac Muscles

- Muscles found in the heart.

Nervous Tissue

- Specialized for communication.
- Consists of neurons or nerve cells.
- Function is to transfer information.

Tissue Aggregates

- Fascia
- Ligaments
- Tendons

Fascia

- Protective membrane that surrounds muscles and organs to protect them.

Ligaments

- Connective tissue that connects bone to bone.

Tendons

- Connective tissues that connect muscles to bone.
- Muscle to Muscle

Bones

- Rigid skeletal support and protection of organs and soft tissues.
- Things that are important are encased in bone.

Joints

- Form a union of bone with other bones or cartilage with other cartilage.

Types of Joints:

- Diarthrodial Joints (Synovial)
- Amphiarthrodial Joints (Cartilaginous)
- Synarthrodial Joints (Fibrous)

Synovial Joints (Diarthrodial)
- Highly mobile joint cavities.
- Contain lubricating synovial fluid.

Types of Synovial Joints
- Plane or gliding
- Condylar
- Pivotal
- Ball & socket
- Hinge

Cartilaginous Joints (Amphiarthrodial)

- Slightly mobile.
- Cartilage forms union between two joints.
- Ex. Inside joints of hip, tail bone, some vertebrae.

Fibrous Joints (Synarthrodial)

- Immobile
- Bound by fibrous ligaments.
- Ex. Structures of the skull.

Plane Joint

- Bones that glide over each other.
- Ex.
o Intercarpal joints, clavicle

Hinge Joint

- One end is convex and the other is concave, and the joint performs movement over one axis.
- Ex.
o Knees, elbows.

Condyloid Joint

- Both bones are oval shaped, one is concave and one is convex.
- Movement in two directions.
- Ex.
o Mandible (jaw)

Ball & Socket Joint

- Forward, backward, sideways, and rotating movements.
- Ex.
o Hips, shoulders.

Muscles

- Aggregate of contractive muscle fibers with a common function.
o Muscle bundles.

Muscle Movement

Muscles function to move the insertion toward the origin.

Muscle Resting Length

- Muscles are the strongest at their resting length.
- Most movements require a small degree of shortening.
- They also contract the fastest when at resting length.

Muscles Can Shorten To:

- About 1/3 of their length.

Types of Muscles

- Agonist
- Antagonist
- Synergist/Fixator

Agonists

- Muscles that move structures.

Antagonists

- Muscles that oppose the contraction of agonists.
- Works with agonists to moderate movements.

Synergists/Fixators

- Muscles that stabilize structures.

Muscle Shapes

- Fusiform Muscles
- Radiate Muscles
- Pennate Muscles

Fusiform Muscles

- Muscle fibers.
- Ex. Bicep

Radiate Muscles

- Have a narrow origin and wide insertion.
o Or vice versa.

Pennate Muscles

- Have a shorter range of motion.
- Generally, have more power.

Muscle Innervation

- Muscles are innervated by a single nerve

One Neuron Can Innervate:

- 1000s of slow twitch muscles.
- 10-20 fast twitch muscles.

A Motor Unit Consists of:

- One efferent nerve fibre.
- Muscle fibres to which it attaches.

Body Systems

- A group of organs that perform a specific function.
- Organs can be part of more than one system.

Respiratory System Components

- Oral passage
- Nasal passages
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchial passage
- Lungs

Speech Pathology Delineates 4 Systems:

- Respiratory
- Phonatory
- Articulatory/Resonatory
- Nervous