AP Euro Test Unit 4

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Explain how the rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans’ view of their world

1. Movement became consistent with the idea of good and evil

2. Earth = bad, corrupted by sin

3. Heavens = more pure, good

4. Goal in life was to attain lightness and purity associated with heaven

Describe the new ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics

1. Copernicus: heliocentrism

2. Galileo: heliocentrism and telescope

3. Harvey: blood pressure, challenged medieval belief established by Galen that body was composed of humors

4. Bacon: scientific method and inductive reasoning

5. Descartes: deductive reasoning, cartesianism

6. Newton: theory of gravity, planetary motion, light spectrum, invented calculus, confirms heliocentrism

Explain how these ideas challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body, although existing traditions of knowledge and the universe continued

Heliocentrism: challenged belief that earth was the center of the universe

Scientific method/inductive reasoning: instead of looking at religion as the answer, encouraged secular learning

Blood pressure: dissecting bodies was considered a sin and illegal, no humors

Explain how Enlightenment thought, focused on concepts such as skepticism, human reason, rationalism, classical sources of knowledge, challenged the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith

Enlightenment focused on concepts like skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge instead of primarily religious authorities. The Church was not the main source of knowledge and ideas, instead, the people used their own human logic to make their own ideas. 

John Locke: Consent of the governed, natural rights, tabula rosa 

Rousseau: General Will 

Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws - separation of powers, criticism of slavery, inspired American constitution.

Cesare Beccaria: Jurisprudence, human dignity, trial by jury

faith was redefined as a trust in human progress and the power of the individual to discover truth

Describe the new public venues and print media that popularized Enlightenment ideas

Print culture: novels, autobiographies, newspapers published up to two times a week

Salons: aristocratic living rooms where intellectuals could discuss ideas

Academies: formal gatherings of educated people who conducted research

Coffeehouses and taverns: informal gatherings where lower class men could discuss the news

Describe the new political and economic theories that challenged absolutism and mercantilism

Adam Smith came up of the idea of a free market economy with a division of labor. There would be an invisible hand in which the market determines what to sell. This would be known as capitalism, obtaining profit not for the state itself but for the individual. The government would not have any intervention, a challenge to absolutism

Explain how the Enlightenment encouraged rational analysis of religious practices, leading to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration

Voltaire fought for religious tolerance, but attacked the organized Church and encouraged a natural religion based on reason.  He believed that the organized Church disenabled us to think freely for ourselves what the true good is. 

Describe the changes that occurred in the 18th century, especially in regard to family and private life, that occurred as a result of new demographic patterns and the effects of the commercial revolution

Population boomed in the eighteenth  century

There was an improvement in agricultural methods, most epidemics disappeared, there were better sanitary standards/practices in cities

People began to marry sooner, which led to more births

Commercial wealth increased. Families grew as they married younger and had more capital/resources. Social mobility increased, child mortality decreased, and there were more resources dedicated to child rearing, private life, and leisure.

In what ways did science break from traditional and ecclesiastical authorities?

Scientists like Copernicus and Galileo introduced heliocentrism, contradicting traditional geocentric views upheld by the Church. The development of the scientific method by Bacon promoted inductive reasoning over tradition dogma or religious explanations. Harvey challenged beliefs like Galen’s humors and forbidden practices like human dissection. They promoted a shift towards human reason and skepticism, moving away from religious authorities as the primary source of knowledge and truth.

What were the political and religious impacts of the Scientific Revolution?

Political:

exploration led to the development and new industries in telescopes, binoculars, microscopes, etc.

Governments began to use science to better serve the state

Missionaries brought back new plants, rocks, and animals from the New World to help understand geology and environmental sciences.

Religious:

Parliament welcomed scientific research as they saw it as a form of protest against Catholicism

Science was associated with ideas like freedom

The Catholic Church created the Inquisition and the Index of Prohibited Books

France began heavy censorship of printings in 1623

What were the main concepts of Enlightenment thought, and how did these challenge existing patterns of thought in religion, government and society?

1. Main Concepts of Enlightenment Thought:

   • Skepticism

   • Human Reason

   • Rationalism

   • Classical Sources of Knowledge

2. Challenges to Existing Patterns of Thought:

   • Religion:

     • Challenged Dogma: Encouraged rational analysis of religious practices, leading to natural religion (Deism) and the demand for religious toleration (e.g., Voltaire).

     • Redefined Faith: Faith was re-framed as a trust in human progress and the individual's ability to discover truth, rather than strict adherence to Church doctrine.

     • Diminished Church Authority: The Church ceased to be the sole or primary source of knowledge and moral guidance.

   • Government:

     • Challenged Absolutism

     • Promoted Individual Rights: consent of the governed, natural rights (life, liberty, property), and tabula rasa.

     • Advocated Separation of Powers: Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws proposed the separation of powers to prevent tyranny, influencing future constitutions.

     • Emphasized General Will and Social Contract: Rousseau explored the concept of the 'General Will' and the social contract, where individuals cede some rights for the common good.

     • Called for Legal Reform: Cesare Beccaria advocated for human dignity in jurisprudence, fair trials, and challenged cruel punishments.

   • Society:

     • Challenged Tradition and Hierarchy:

     • Encouraged Meritocracy: Valued individual achievement and reasoned thought over birthright and inherited status.

     • Promoted Freedom and Progress: Fostered belief in human progress and the potential for societal improvement through education and rational reform.

     • New Economic Theories: Adam Smith challenged mercantilism with the concept of a free market economy (capitalism) and an 'invisible hand,' advocating for less government intervention and more individual economic freedom.

What new political and economic theories became dominant as a result of the Enlightenment?

Political theories:

• challenged absolutism

• Natural rights

• separation of powers

• Social contract

• legal reform

Economic theories

• Capitalism

• Laissez-faire

• Division of labor: specialized production to increase efficiency and wealth

Frederick the Great of Prussia 

Turned his court into a haven for philosophes

Believed that he had a duty to govern well: freed serfs, abolished landlords’ right to punish serfs, relaxed censorship, abolished capital punishment

Reforms were intended to make the state stronger, more efficient, and reinforced social differences between nobles and serfs

Maria Theresa

Banned mistreatment of serfs and limited their obligations to lords

Joseph II

Abolished serfdom, reorganized civil laws so everyone would be considered equal before he law. Took control of Catholic Church property in Habsburg lands, peasants were conscripted into the army.

Catherine the Great

Created Charter of Nobility

• Formalized rel between nobility and state

• Confirmed property rights of nobility

• Guaranteed immunity from arrest and confiscation of property by state

only rights for the nobility

Did not free serfs

What led to the growth of towns and cities in the 18th century and what effect did this growth have?

Population boomed in the eighteenth  century

There was an improvement in agricultural methods, most epidemics disappeared, there were better sanitary standards/practices in cities

People began to marry sooner, which led to more births

Not as much warfare and it was professionalized

Effects:

Less manual labor needed, increased poverty, cities seen as a lack of community

Commercial wealth increased

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe is known for his extremely accurate naked-eye astronomical observations, which laid the foundation for modern astronomy before the invention of the telescope. He discovered a supernova in 1572, showing the heavens were not immutable, and accurately observed comets, which helped disprove ancient models of celestial spheres. His meticulous data was later used by his assistant, Johannes Kepler, to formulate his laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler is best known for formulating the three laws of planetary motion, which describe how planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths, sweep out equal areas in equal times, and have orbital periods related to their distance from the Sun. His work was foundational for modern astronomy and influenced Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation. Kepler also made significant contributions to optics, for which he is called the "founder of modern optics," and developed the basis for integral calculus

Margaret Cavendish

one of the most prolific female authors and natural philosophers of the 17th century, writing at a time of immense political upheaval. Key moment: Publishing extensively under her own name on subjects such as natural philosophy and gender

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Jean-Baptiste Colbert is known for his powerful role as Louis XIV's finance minister, where he implemented mercantilist economic policies to strengthen France. His reforms included increasing state revenue, promoting domestic manufacturing and trade through tariffs, and developing infrastructure like roads and canals. Additionally, he was a major cultural patron who founded scientific and artistic academies, reformed the legal system, and built up the French navy.

Immanuel Kant

built on the idea of human autonomy, synthesizing rationalism and empiricism to argue that human reason is the source of both the laws of nature and the moral law

Inductive Reasoning vs Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to a general conclusion, while deductive reasoning moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

Deists

people who believe in a supreme being who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs

Enlightened Absolutism

an 18th-century system where absolute monarchs used Enlightenment ideals like reason and progress to enact reforms while retaining absolute power

Pugachev’s Rebellion

Yemelyan Pugachev rallied the peasants and Cossacks and promised the serfs land of their own and freedom from their lords