Stereotypes

What is a stereotype?

• Stereotypes are a fixed, over-generalised belief about a particular group or class of people

• By stereotyping we infer that a person has a whole range of characteristics and abilities that we assume all members of that group have

• Stereotypes are widely held, meaning they're believed by many people, and while they are not always negative they may lead to prejudice and discrimination against a social group

SIT and Formation of Stereotypes

• SIT proposes that the process of social categorisation into in-groups and out-groups leads to positive stereotyping of the in-group and negative stereotyping of the out-group

• A positive social identity maintains individual self-esteem, so in-groups are viewed positively

• Categorisation into in-groups and out-groups leads to reduced variability in the in-group ('we are the same') and increased variability in the out-group ('they are different from us')

• This effectively maximises differences between in-groups and out-groups and minimises differences within groups

• Conflict is not necessary for stereotyping, but can develop these stereotypes into more discrimination

• The study supporting this theory is Sheriff’s cave study

Illusory Correlation

• Hamilton and Gifford argue that stereotypes are the result of an illusory correlation, where people see a relationship between two variables even when there is none

• This causes people to overestimate a link between the two variables

• We often rely on System 1 thinking, making decisions based on heuristics 

• There are 2 types of illusory correlations: Expectancy-based and Distinctiveness-based

Expectancy-based correlation

• Occurs when we mistakenly see relationships due to our pre-existing expectations surrounding them

• This is a form of confirmation bias - I see what I expect to see and this strengthens my belief

• If I see something that doesn't match that expectation, I either forget about it or I rationalise that it is an exception to the rule - something known as the discounting principle.

Distinctiveness-based illusory correlations

• Happen when a relationship is believed to exist between two variables due to focusing too much on information that stands out

• Once illusory correlations are made, people tend to seek out or remember information that supports this relationship

• This is an example of confirmation bias

• This means that people tend to overlook information that contradicts what they already believe

• In a social context, they pay attention to behaviours that confirm what they believe about a group and ignore those behaviours contrary to their beliefs

• Confirmation bias makes stereotypical thinking resistant to change

Stereotypes Studyn name

Hamilton and Gifford

Hamilton and Gifford Aim

To investigate illusory correlation of group size and negative behaviour and the formation of stereotypes to a minority group

Hamilton and Gifford Procedure

• Sample of 70 American undergraduates (35 males; 35 females)

• Participants were shown a series of slides, each with a statement about a member of one of two groups - simply called group A and B.

• Group A had 26 people and group B had 13 people, so group B was the minority group

• Participants were told that group B was smaller than group A before starting the experiment

• Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was either positive or negative

• Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments

• E.g. Mark visited a friend in hospital or Alan dented his friend's car but didn't tell him.

• Participants were then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits - for example, popular, social, intelligent

• After completing this task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B

• Finally, they were asked how many of the statements for each group had been undesirable

Hamilton and Gifford Results

• On the trait ratings, group A was ranked higher than group B for positive traits and lower for negative traits.

• In the booklet, participants correctly recalled more positive traits for group A (74%) than for group B (54%)

• In the booklet, participants recalled more negative traits for group B (65%) than for group A (55%)

• Participants overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group, but this finding was not significantly significant.

Hamilton and Gifford Conclusion

Stereotypes can arise from illusory correlation, where people overestimate the link between minority group status and negative traits

Hamilton and Gifford Generalisabiliity

• The sample consisted of only 70 American undergraduate students, making it culturally and developmentally limited.

• Findings may not generalise to older adults, children, or people from non-Western cultures.

• Both male and female participants were included (35 each), adding some gender balance.

Hamilton and Gifford Reliability

• Highly controlled and replicable experimental design.

• Clear and standardised procedure 

• Has been replicated in follow-up studies with similar results, supporting reliability.

Hamilton and Gifford Applicability

• Demonstrates how illusory correlations contribute to stereotype formation, especially regarding minority groups.

• Can be applied in education, workplace training, and anti-bias programs to explain why minority groups are unfairly stereotyped.

• Useful in understanding prejudice and cognitive distortions in real-world group dynamics

Hamilton and Gifford Validity

• High internal validity due to experimental control over variables (equal proportion of positive/negative statements).

• Clear causal relationship between group size + perception.

• Low ecological validity – artificial task (rating fictional group members based on short statements).

• Judgments in the lab may not reflect how stereotypes form in real-world social interactions.

Hamilton and Gifford Ethics

• No significant ethical concerns – no deception, physical/psychological harm, or sensitive personal data.

• Participants gave informed consent and the content was mild.