Praxis 5622 Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT: Grades K-6)

Behaviorism

Teacher-Based Theory - focuses on observable and measurable aspects of students' behavior. Proposes behavior can be learned or unlearned as the result of stimulus-and-response actions. Views learning as process of stimuli/responses.

Example of a Teacher-Based Learning Theory

Behaviorism

Characteristics of Behaviorism (Learning Theory)

*Focuses on observable changes in behavior

*Views the teacher's role as providing information and supervising practice

*Describes learning as the result of stimulus-response actions

*Uses incentives and rewards for motivation

*Teacher-Centered

Applications of Behaviorism (Learning Theory)

*Basal readers

*Mini-lessons

*Repeated readings

Examples of Student-Based Learning Theories

*Constructivism

*Sociolinguistics

*Cognitive/Information Processing

Social Cognitive Learning Theory

Theorists focus on the ways people learn from observing one another.

Characteristics of Sociolinguistics Learning Theory

*Emphasizes the importance of language and social interaction on learning

*Views reading and writing as social and cultural activities

*Explains that students learn best through authentic activities

*Describes the teacher's role as scaffolding students' learning

*Advocates culturally responsive teaching

*Challenges students to confront injustices and inequities in society

*Student-Centered

Applications of Sociolinguistics Learning Theory

*Literature circles

*Shared reading

*Buddy reading

*Reading and writing workshop

*Author's chair

Information Processing Learning Theory

Theorists focus more on what happens inside the learner's mind, considering the process of learning, memory, and performance. Some theorists compare the mind to a computer and use terms like storage, retrieval, working memory, and long-term memory.

Characteristics of Cognitive / Information Processing Learning Theory

*Compares the mind to a computer

*Recommends integrating reading and writing

*Views reading and writing as meaning-making processes

*Explains that readers' interpretations are individualized

*Describes students as strategic readers and writings

*Student-Centered

Applications of Cognitive / Information Processing Learning Theory

*Guided reading

*Graphic organizers

*Grand conversations

*Interactive writing

*Reciprocal questioning

Constructivism

A student-based learning theory that suggests learning isn't observable. Rather, it involves mental processes and occurs when students integrate new knowledge with their existing knowledge. It describes students as active and engaged learners who construct their own knowledge. It suggests that people construct or create knowledge (as opposed to absorb knowledge) based on their experiences and interactions.

Characteristics of Constructivism Learning Theory

*Describes learning as the active construction of knowledge

*Recognizes the importance of background knowledge

*Views learners as innately curious

*Advocates collaboration, not competition

*Suggests ways to engage students so they can be successful

*Student-Centered

Applications of Constructivism Learning Theory

*Literature focus units

*K-W-L charts

*Reading logs

*Thematic units

*Word sorts

Sociocultural Learning Theory

Theorists posit that the combination of social, cultural, and historical contexts in which a learner exists have great influence on the person's knowledge construction and the ways teachers must organize instruction.

Bloom's Taxonomy

This theory states that there are 3 learning domains (e.g. cognitive, performance or psychomotor, and affective), and it impacts the way educators write lesson objectives, plan learning activities, and assess student performance.

Cognitive Domain

AKA: Knowledge - This domain of Bloom's Taxonomy involves the mind and skills or strategies one uses and is organized into six levels from lowest order to highest (e.g. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation).

Knowledge

To recall information or data; key words: defines, lists, locates, recites, states. (First of six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive [Knowledge] Domain)

Comprehension

To understand meaning of instruction and problems; key words: confirms, describes, discusses, explains, matches. (Second of six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive [AKA: Knowledge] Domain)

Application

To use a concept in a new situation; key words: applies builds, constructs, produces, reports (Third of six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive Domain)

Analysis

To separate concepts into parts; key words: analyzes, builds, constructs, produces, reports (Fourth of six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive Domain)

Synthesis

To build a pattern from diverse elements; key words: composes, designs, hypothesizes, implements, revises (Fifth of six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive [Knowledge] Domain)

Evaluation

To make judgments; key words: assesses, concludes, critiques, justifies, solves (Sixth of six levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Cognitive Domain)

Performance or Psychomotor Domain

AKA: Skills - Bloom's Taxonomy's domain which involves manual or physical skills one uses, which are divided into seven levels (e.g. perception, set, guided responses, mechanism, complex overt responses, adaptation, origination).

Perception

To use senses to guide motor activity; key words: chooses, describes, identifies, selects (First of seven levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [Skills] Domain)

Set

To be ready to act; key words: begins, moves, proceeds, shows, states (Second of seven levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [Skills] Domain)

Guided Responses

To use trial and error, imitation to learn (early stage); key words: copies, traces, follows, reproduces, replicates (Third of seven subdivisions of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [AKA: Skills] Domain)

Mechanism

To respond in a habitual way with movements performed with some confidence and proficiency (intermediate stage); key words: assembles, calibrates, displays, manipulates (Fourth of seven subdivisions of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [Skills] Domain)

Complex Overt Responses

To perform complex movement patterns skillfully (skillful stage); key words (same as mechanism, but adverbs or adjectives are added to indicate proficiency): assembles quickly, calibrates accurately, displays proficiently, manipulates quickly and accurately (Fifth of seven levles of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [AKA: Skills] Domain)

Adaptation

To use well-developed skills and be able to modify to fit special requirements; key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, revises (Sixth of seven levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [AKA Skills] Domain)

Origination

To create new movement patterns to fit a specific problem or situation; key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, revises (Seventh of seven levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Performance [Skills] Domain)

Affective Domain

AKA: Attitude - The third of three domains in Bloom's Taxonomy. It has five levels (e.g. receiving phenomena, responding to phenomena, valuing, organization, internalizing values).

Receiving Phenomena

To be aware, to have selected attention; key words: asks follows, gives, locates, uses (First of five levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Affective [Attitude] Domain)

Responding to Phenomena

To actively participate; key words: answers, discusses, helps, tells (Second of five levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Affective [Attitude] Domain)

Valuing

To determine worth; key words: demonstrates, differentiates, explains, invites, joins (Third of five levels of Bloom's Taxonomy's Affective [Attitude] Domain)

Organization

To organize values into priorities; key words: arranges, alters, modifies, relates, synthesizes (Fourth of five subdivisions of Bloom's Taxonomy's Affective [Attitude] Domain)

Internalizing Values

To control behavior using own value system; key words: acts, discriminates, listens, modifies, verifies (Fifth of five subdivisions of Bloom's Taxonomy's Affective [Attitude] Domain)

Benjamin Bloom

Created a Taxonomy of learning domains

Albert Bandura

Creator of Social (or Observational) Learning Theory which requires several steps:

1. Attention - Attending to the lesson

2. Retention - Remembering what was learned

3. Reproduction - Trying out the skill or concept

4. Motivation - Willingness to learn and ability to self-regulate behavior

Social (or Observational) Learning Theory

Children learn by observing others. In a classroom setting, this may occur through modeling or learning vicariously through others' experiences. One important concept from this theory is Distributed Cognition.

Distributed Cognition

A process in which two or more learners share their thinking as they work together to solve a problem. A person is able to learn more with another or in a group than he or she might be able to do alone. (An important concept from the Social [or Observational] Learning Theory.)

Jerome Bruner

Creator of Discovery Learning and Scaffolding

Discovery Learning & Scaffolding

Two theories created by Jerome Bruner - based on his belief that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based on knowledge or past experiences.

Discovery Learning

Teaching method that enable students to discover information by themselves or in groups. Created by Jerome Bruner - teaching techniques feature methods to allow a student to discover information by himself, herself, or in a group. Distance learning falls in this category.

Scaffolding

Created by Jerome Bruner - Involves instructional supports (to the degree needed) provided to a student by an adult or a more capable peer in a learning situation. Example of Scaffolding: teacher reading a portion of the text and then asking the student to repeat the same sentence.

John Dewey

Established Experiential Education = Learning Through Experience - Considered the father of progressive education practice that promotes individuality, free activity, and learning through experiences, such as project-based learning cooperative learning, arts-integration activities, and teacher reflective practices.

Learning Through Experience (Experiential Education)

Created by John Dewey. He theorized that school is primarily a social institution and a process of living, not an institution to prepare for future living. He believed that schools should teach children to be problem solvers by helping them learn to think as opposed to helping them learn only the content of a lesson and that students should be active decision makers in their education.

Erik Erikson

Created eight stages of human development. He suggested that there are eight stages of human development, which are based on a crisis or conflict that a person resolves.

Infancy Stage

Trust vs. Mistrust is crisis or conflict of Erik Erikson's first of eight stages of human development -- key event = feeding -- age range: 0-1

Toddler Stage

Autonomy vs. Doubt is crisis or conflict of Erik Erikson's second of eight stages of human development -- key event = toilet training -- age range: 1-2

Early Childhood Stage

Initiative vs. Guilt is the crisis/conflict of Erik Erikson's third of eight stages of human development -- key event = independence - age range: 2-6

Elementary & Middle School Stage

Competence vs. Inferiority is crisis or conflict of Erik Erikson's fourth of eight stages of human development -- key event = school -- age range: 6-12

Adolescence Stage

Identity vs. Role Confusion is the crisis of Erik Erikson's fifth of eight stages of human development - key event is sense of identity - age range 12-18

Young Adulthood Stage

Intimacy vs. Isolation is crisis or conflict of Erik Erikson sixth of eight stages of human development -- key event = intimate relationships - age range: 18-40

Middle Adulthood Stage

Generavity vs. Stagnation is crisis or conflict of Erik Erikson's seventh of eight stages of human development -- key event = supporting the next generation - age range: 40-65

Late Adulthood Stage

Integrity vs. Despair is crisis or conflict of Erik Erikson's eighth of eight stages of human development -- key event = reflection & acceptance -- age range: 65-death

Carol Gilligan

Created Stages of the Ethic of Care.

Stages of the Ethic of Care

Created by Carol Gilligan - her work questions the male-centered personality psychology of Freud and Erikson, as well as Kohlberg's male-centered stages of moral development. She proposed the following stage theory of the moral development of women: pre-conventional stage, conventional, and pot-conventional.

Pre-Conventional Stage (Ethic of Care)

First of three stages of Carol Gilligan's theory - Goal: Individual Survival

Conventional Stage (Ethic of Care)

Second of three stages of Ethic of Care (created by Carol Gilligan) - Goal: Self-Sacrifice is Goodness

Post-Conventional Stage (Ethic of Care)

Third of three stages of Carol Gilligan's theory - Goal: Principle of Nonviolence

Lawrence Kohlberg

Created Theory of Moral Development

Theory of Moral Development's Levels & Stages

Has 3 levels with 2 stages in each level:

*Level 1, Pre-conventional (Stage 1, Obedience & Punishment / Stage 2, Individualism, Instrumentalism, & Exchange)

*Level 2, Conventional (Stage 3, Good Boy, Good Girl / Stage 4, Law & Order)

*Level 3, Post-Convectional (Stage 5, Social Contract / Stage 6, Principled Conscience)

Pre-Conventional Level (Moral Development)

First of three levels of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory (includes stages 1 & 2 of social orientation). Elementary students are generally at this level in which some authority figure's threat or application of punishment inspires obedience.

Social Orientation Stages are:

1. Obedience and punishment

2. Individualism, instrumentalism, and exchange

Age Range = Birth to 9

Conventional Level (Moral Development)

Second of three levels of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory (includes stages 3 & 4 of social orientation). This level is found in society.

Social Orientation Stages are:

3. "Good boy/good girl" (seeking to do what will gain the approval of peers or others)

4. Law and order (abiding the law and responding to obligations

Age Range = 9-20

Post-Conventional Level (Moral Development)

Third of three levels of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory (includes stages 5 & 6 of social orientation). According to Kohlberg, this level is rarely achieved by the majority of adults.

Social Orientation Stages are:

5. Social contract (shows an understanding of social mutuality and genuine interest in the welfare of others)

6. Principled conscience (based on respect for the universal principles and the requirements of individual conscience)

Age Range = 20+ or maybe never

Jean Piaget

A cognitive theorist who established the theory of Stages of Cognitive Development which suggested that there are four stages of cognitive development, including:

*Sensorimotor

*Peroperational

*Concrete Operational

*Formal Operational

Cognitive Development Theory

Theory established by Jean Piaget. It suggests 4 stages of development, including:

*Sensorimotor

*Peroperational

*Concrete Operational

*Formal Operational

Sensorimotor

First of four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Occurs from birth to 2 years and the behavior includes:

*Explore the world through senses and motor skills.

Preoperational

Second of four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Occurs from 2 years to 7 years and the behavior includes:

*Believe that others view the world as they do.

*Can use symbols to represent other things.

Concrete Operational

Third of four stages of Piaget's theory. Occurs from 7 years to 11 years and the behavior includes:

*Reason logically in familiar situations.

*Can conserve and reverse operations.

Formal Operational

Fourth of four stages of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. Occurs from age 11 and up. The behavior includes:

*Can reason in hypothetical situations and use abstract thought.

Accommodation

Responding to a new event or object by changing an existing scheme or creating a new scheme. In other words, when students begin learning about a completely new topic, they create a mental file and place the new information in it. Piaget called this process accommodation and it is more difficult than assimilation.

Assimilation

Responding to a new event or object that is consistent with an existing scheme. In other words, when students already know something about a topic, the new information is added to that mental file, or schema in a revision process (according to Piaget).

Classical Conditioning

A process of behavior modification by which a person comes to respond in the desired manner to what was once a neutral stimulus. Neutral stimulus has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (a natural, inherent stimulus, such as the smell of food) that eventually elicits the desired response.

Conservation

Knowing that a number or amount stays the same even when rearranged or presented in a different shape. For example, a child understands that a specified amount of fluid remains constant regardless of the varied ways it appears in glasses of different sizes.

Convergent Thinking

A process of gathering several pieces of information together to solve a problem.

Creativity

New and original behavior that creates a culturally appropriate product.

Disequilibrium

One's inability to explain new events based on existing schemes, which is usually accompanied by discomfort.

Declarative, Procedural, & Conditional Knowledge

3 stages of acquiring knowledge because knowledge is constructed, not absorbed. Used develop lesson plans that explicitly help student to: 1. Know what they are learning 2. how to complete the thinking procedure or acquire the content 3. when he or she can transfer or use the new knowledge in another situation or experience.

Declarative Knowledge

The knowledge of what is (student's knowledge of what he or she is learning) - first of three stages of acquiring knowledge.

Procedural Knowledge

The knowledge of how to (student's knowledge of how to complete the thinking procedure or acquire the content) - second of three stages of acquiring knowledge.

Conditional Knowledge

The knowledge of when again (student's knowledge of when he or she can transfer or use the new knowledge in another situation or experience) - third of three stages of acquiring knowledge.

Disposition

A person's natural tendency to approach learning or problem solving in certain ways.

Divergent Thinking

The process of mentally taking a single idea and expanding it in several directions.

Equilibration

Movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and then back to equilibrium again.

Equilibrium

One's ability to explain new events based on existing schemes.

Long-Term Memory

The part of memory that holds skills and knowledge for a long time.

Metacognition

A person's ability to think about his and her own thinking. It requires self-awareness and self-regulation of thinking. A student who demonstrates a high level of this is ability can explain his or her own thinking and describe which strategies he or she uses to read and to solve a problem.

Problem solving

To use existing knowledge or skills to solve problems or complex issues.

Abraham Maslow

Established the Hierarchy of Needs Theory in which certain lower needs must be satisfied before higher needs can be met.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow theorized that there are five levels of need and the higher needs cannot be met until certain lower needs are satisfied, as follows:

Level 1. Physiological

Level 2. Safety

Level 3. Love & Belonging

Level 4. Esteem

Level 5. Self-Actualization

Physiological

First of five levels listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. These very basic needs include air, water, food, sleep, & sex.

Safety

Second of five levels listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. These needs help us establish stability & consistency in a chaotic world, such as a secure home & family. Safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious, ensuring the promise of safety after we die.

Love & Belong

Third of five levels in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. This level of the hierarchy occurs when people need to belong to groups: churches, schools, clubs, gangs, families, and so on. People need to be needed at this level.

Esteem

Fourth of five levels in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. This level results from competence or the mastery of the task and the ensuing attention & recognition received from others.

Self-Actualization

Fifth of five levels listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory. People who have achieved the first four levels can maximize their potential. They seek knowledge, peace, oneness with the higher power, self-fulfillment, and so on.

Maria Montessori

Established the theory "Follow the Child". Believed there are 3 learning stages and that childhood is divided into four stages that have six year intervals in each stage. She also believed that adolescence can be divided into two sub-groups.

Learning Stages of Follow the Child

1. Introduce a concept by lecture, lesson, experience, book read-aloud, and so on.

2. Process the information and develop an understanding of the concept through work, experimentation, and creativity.

3. "Knowing" - possessing an understanding of something that is demonstrated by ability to pass a test with confidence, teach the concept to another, or express understanding with ease.

Age Divisions of Follow the Child

According to Montessori, childhood can be divided as follows:

*Birth-6

*6-12

*12-18

*18-24

Also, Adolescence can be divided into sub-groups, as follows:

*12-15

*16-18