Key term glossary

Consensus view

Suggests society works best when people agree on how things are organized and have shared values

Conflict view

Suggests that society works for the benefit of some people more than others

Structural theory

Perspective concerned with the overall structure of society

Social order

Running smoothly and calmly

Value consensus

An agreement amongst society that is important and desirable

Social solidarity

Feeling of belonging to larger community and shared identity

Functionalism

Where society is viewed as a whole and work together to promote solidarity and stability

Marxism

Analytical view of society through class struggle

Feminism

The belief in social, political and economic equality of the sexes

Organic analogy

The institutions in society are like organs in the body, they are interdependent and perform a specific function which maintains society

Functional prerequisites

Basic needs

Superstructure

Ways of thinking/ ideologies transferred from social institutions

Relations of production

The relationship between owners of the means of production and workers

Means of production

Key resources necessary for producing societies goods such as land, factories and machinery

The Bourgeoisie/ Middle class

A small group of wealthy and powerful individuals who own the means of production

The Proletariat/ Working class

A large group of workers who have to work for wages and are exploited by the Bourgeoisie

Surplus value

Excess profit after workers are paid a wage

Ruling class ideology

Beliefs which present a false and distorted view of society and disguises the true nature of class society and conceals the exploitation on which its based

False class consciousness

Where the proletariat are unaware of exploitation and true nature of society and capitalism

Communism

An equal society where production would be common property of all, without exploitation, social class or class conflict

Malestream

Male perspective

The capitalist system

An economic system based on a small minority of society having ownership of wealth and businesses

Nurture

The belief that behaviour is a result of our social and cultural environment

Nature

The belief that people are governed by instincts, which are fixed patterns of behaviour that are inherited and influence human actions

Norms

Values put into practice - rules of behaviour that relate to specific social situations and govern all aspects of human behaviour

Values

Something which society believes is worthwhile or desirable - widely accepted beliefs

Socially constructed

An idea that society defines

Mores

Ways of behaving that are seen as good or moral

Customs

Traditional and regular norms of behaviour associated with specific social situations and events - often accompanied with rituals and ceremonies

Status

A social position all members of society are given by their culture

Ascribed status

Fixed at birth, usually by inheritance or biology (eg gender, ethnicity)

Achieved status

Social position that is acquired - eg through education, teacher

Roles

Those who have a certain status should behave in a certain way and a set of norms is imposed on the status

Role conflict

Conflicting demands are placed on an individual as a result of various statuses

Material culture

The physical things that people create and attach emotional meaning to

Non-material culture

Ideas that people share (eg rules, traditions, languages)

Individualistic culture

Cultures which tend to emphasise individual freedom and personal gain, sometimes at the expense of others

Collectivistic culture

Emphasise belonging to group as more important than personal freedom

Cultural diversity

The differences in behaviour between cultures such as differing norms, values and customs

Ethnocentrism

Viewing other cultures from the perspective of one’s own culture

Cultural relativism

The belief that behaviours and customs of any cultures must be viewed and analysed by that culture’s own standards to avoid ethnocentrism

Cultural universals

Common features that all cultures share

Subcultures

A smaller group of people who share distinctive norms and values within a wider culture

Countercultures

A group that strongly rejects the dominant values of society and seeks alternative lifestyles

Culture

The way of life shared by members

Socialisation

The process by which an individual learns the norms and values of society

Primary socialisation

Where a child learns from the immediate family in the home and adopts the beliefs and values of family and learns their expectations

Secondary socialisation

Where a child learns what wider society expects of it’s member - takes place outside home, often through friends, education etc

Tertiary socialisation

Adult socialisation and takes place when people adapt to new situations - eg becoming a parent or new job

Formal socialisation

The process where people are deliberately manipulated so they will learn certain rules - eg educational processes and children obeying those in authority

Informal socialisation

Where people learn to fit into their culture by watching and learning from others

Agents of socialisation

Culture is passed on by the agents of socialisation who are the individuals, groups and institutions who are involved of the socialisation process

Gender roles

Characteristics and behaviours that are considered appropriate for males and females in society

Gender role socialisation

The process by which individuals are taught appropriate behaviour for their gender

Canalisation

Channeling the child’s interests towards gender specific activities and games

Manipulation

Parents encourage gendered behaviour and discourage inappropriate gender behaviour

Differentiation/ Different Activities

Parents encourage children to be involved in different activities according to their gender

Verbal Appellations

Gendered names being used for children

Social control

The various methods used to persuade or force individuals to conform to the dominant norms and values of society

Deviant

Behaviour which is not socially acceptable and attracts disapproval

Agents of social control

Groups, individuals and institutions in society who encourage conformity through positive and negative sanctions

Formal agents of social control

Agencies set up to specifically make individuals conform to social norms and laws

Informal agents of social control

Institutions whose primary purpose is not to control our behaviour, but they do so by socialising individuals

Sanctions

Rewards and punishments that encourage individuals to conform to the norms and values of society

Positive sanctions

Rewards to encourage conformity

Negative sanctions

Punishments intended to discourage socially unacceptable behaviour

Formal sanctions

Imposed by official bodies such as the police or criminal justice system and involve punishments for breaking formal written rules or laws

Informal sanctions

Used when an unwritten rule is broken and often involves disapproval in an informal way

Identity

Refers to sense of self - how individuals see themselves and how they are seen by others

Personal identity

The characteristics that are unique to an individual - eg likes, dislikes, appearance etc

Social identity

The characteristics that a person shares with other people that makes them feel as part of that group

Gender identity

An individuals own sense of their own gender - private sense of whether they feel masculine, feminine, both etc

Social class

A group of people who share a similar economic situation - such as occupation, income and ownership of wealth

Ethnicity

Refers to a group of people who identify with each other based on common ancestral, social, cultural or national experience

National identity

Sense of belonging to a specific geographical region

Family

A social institution consisting of a group of people linked by kinship ties - the adult members of which assume responsibility for caring for children

Extended family

Refers to people who surround themselves with parents and children such as grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins

Modified extended family

A family who live apart but keep in contact through the phone and social media

Horizontal extended family

Members of the same generation such as aunties and uncles

Vertical extended family

Three or more generations (grandparents, parents and children) living in the same household or nearby

Nuclear family

Defined as two heterosexual parents and their children who are linked by blood, adoption or law

Household

A group of people who live at the same address but may not have kinship ties

Cohabitation

A couple who live together, share resources, domestic labour and other responsibilities without getting married

Reconstituted family

A family created where one or both partners were previously married - also known as step or blended family

Single parent family

A family where there is one adult and their dependent children - also known as a lone parent family

Matrifocal lone parent family

A family headed solely by a female

Patrifocal lone parent family

A family headed solely by a male

Same sex family

A family headed by lesbian or gay couples, with or without children

Single person household

An individual who lives alone

Elective singlehood

An individual who chooses to live alone

Beanpole family

A multi generational family but few people in each generation due to increased life expectancy and a decline in the birth rate

Sandwich generation

A generation of people, typically in their thirties or forties responsible both for bringing up their own children and for the care of their ageing parents

Boomerang children

Adults who return to the family home after originally moving away

Living apart together (LAT)

Relationships whereby individuals are in a long term committed relationship but do not share a single household. This could be due to work arrangements or personal choice

Instrumental role

Working roles played by men within the family

Expressive role

A maternal and caring role played by women in the family

Dual earner families

Where both parents work and provide for the family

Symmetrical family

Where domestic tasks and childcare is shared equally between both parents

Golden age of family

Majority of families being nuclear

Ideological State Apparatus

A tool used to influence the way the working class think