BIOL 2311 26 FC

Gross anatomy

is the study of structures of the body visible to the naked eye (large body parts)

Surface anatomy->

2 main divisions of the body are:

Axial

Appendicular

Axial: refers to the structures along the midline of the body, including head neck and trunk

Appendicular: refers to the limbs and their attachments to the axis

Axial

refers to the structures along the midline of the body, including the head, neck, and trunk

Appendicular

refers to the limbs and their attachments to the axis

Regional Terminology: Anterior

...

Abdominal

Pertaining to the region of the anterior trunk between the ribs and the upper border of the hips

Acromial

(shoulder)

pertaining to the point of the shoulder

Antebrachial

(forearm)

pertaining to the forearm (the lower portion of the upper limb)

Antecubital

pertaining to the anterior surface of the elbow (the inside of the elbow)

Axillary

pertaining to the armpit

Brachial

pertaining to the arm (upper portion of the upper limb)

Buccal

pertaining to the cheek

Name the regional terminology

carpal

→ pertaining to the wrist

Name the regional terminology

cervical

→ pert. to the neck

Coxal

pert. to the hip

Crural

(shin)

pert. to the leg (lower portion of the lower limb)

Digital

pert. to the fingers or toes

Femoral

(femur)

pert. to the thigh (the upper portion of the lower limb)

Frontal

pert. to the forehead

Hallux

pert. to the big toe

inguinal

pert. to the groin

Mammary

pert. to the breast

Mental

pert. to the chin

Nasal

pert. to the nose

Oral

pert. to the mouth

Orbital

pert. to the bony eye socket (orbit)

Palmar

pert. to the palm of the hand

Patellar

(kneecap)

pert. to the anterior knee (kneecap) region

Pedal

pert. to the foot

Pelvic

pert. to the pelvic region (between the upper edge of the hip and groin)

Fibular (peroneal)

pert. to the side of the leg (lower portion)

Pollex

pert. to thumb

Pubic

pert. to the genital region

Sternal (sternum)

pert. to the region of breastbone (center of the chest)

Tarsal

pert. to the ankle

Thoracic

pert. to the chest (from the collar bone to the bottoms of the ribs)

Umbilical

(belly button)

pert. to the navel

Regional terminology: Posterior

...

Acromial (P)

pert. to the point of the shoulder

Brachial (P)

pert. to the arm (upper portion)

Calcaneal (P)

pert. to the heel of the feet

Cephalic (P)

pert. to the head

Dorsum (P)

(whole back)

pert. to the back (trunk only)

Femoral (P)

pert. to the thigh

(upper portion of the lower limb)

Gluteal (P)

pert. to the buttocks or rump

Lumbar (P)

(lower back)

pert. to the region of the back between the lower edge of the ribs and the hips (the loin)

Manus (P)

pert. to the hand

Occipital (P)

pert. to the posterior aspect of the head or base of the skull

Olecranal (P)

pert. to the posterior aspect of the elbow

Otic (P)

pert. to the ear

Perineal (P)

pert. to the region between the anus and the external genitalia

Plantar (P)

pert. to the sole of the foot

Popliteal (P)

Pert. to the back of the knee

Sacral (P)

pert. to the region between the hips

→ (looks like the top of your buttcrack)

Scapular (P)

(shoulder blades)

pert. to the region overlying the shoulder blades

Sural (P)

pert. to the calf or the posterior surface of the leg (the lower portion of the lower limb)

Vertebral (P)

pert. to the region overlying the spinal column

Directional terminology

- superior/inferior

- medial/lateral

- proximal/distal

- anterior/posterior

- superficial/deep

Superior/inferior

• placement relative to the long axis of the body

• equivalent to cephalad (toward head) and caudal (toward the tail) in humans

Medial/Lateral

Placement relative to the midline along the width of the body

Proximal/Distal

Placement along a limb relative to the point of attachment of that limb to the rest of the body

Anterior/Posterior

• Placement along the axis running from front to back

• Equivalent to ventral (front / toward the belly) and dorsal (back / toward the back) in humans

Superficial/Deep

• Superficial = toward skin

• Placement within the body from the surface toward the interior of the body

Planes of Section

• A cut, or section, is often a useful way of visualizing anatomical structures in relation to other structures

• Sections are made along planes of section, which are oriented relative to the axes of the body

Planes of Section (longitudinal defintions)

• Longitudinal sections are oriented parallel to the long axis of the body

• Longitudinal sections include frontal (front to back) sections and sagittal sections (side to side)

Frontal section

Divide the body into an anterior (front) portion and a posterior (back) portion

Sagittal section

divide the body into left and right portions

Midsagittal (median) section

Lies along the midline of the body and divides the body into EQUAL right and left halves

Parasagittal section

lies parallel to the midline and divides the body into UNEQUAL right and left portions

Cross section/Transverse section

cross sections lie perpendicular to the long axis of the body

→ (cuts top from body)

Oblique section

lies at an angle (not 90 degrees or 180 degrees) to the long axis of the body

Body cavities

• the axial portion of the body contains two main cavities that house the internal organs

• these cavities are the DORSAL and VENTRAL cavities (front and back)

Dorsal cavity

• the dorsal cavity lies along the dorsal side of the body and includes the cranial and spinal cavites

• the cranial cavity contains the brain, and the spinal cavity contains the spinal cord

Ventral cavity

• the ventral cavity lies along the ventral side of the body and contains a number of sub-cavities

• these sub-cavities include the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Thoracic cavity (chest)

• The thoracic cavity is superior and is bounded below by a muscular wall called the diaphragm

• The thoracic cavity includes two pleural cavities and the mediastinum

Pleural cavities

• the pleural cavities enclose the lungs and are bounded by serous membranes called pleura

→ pleural cavities enclose in PLEURA

Mediastinum

• the mediastinum lies between the pleural cavities and includes the superior mediastinum and the pericardium

• the superior mediastinum encloses the esophagus and trachea

Pericardial cavity

• The pericardial cavity encloses the heart and is bounded by a serous membrane called the pericardium

→ pericardial cavity → heart → serous membrane → pericardium

Abdominopelvic cavity

• the abdominopelvic cavity includes the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity

• the abdominopelvic cavity is bounded above the diaphragm

• the abdominal cavity encloses most of the digestive organs

• the abdominal cavity is bounded by a serous membrane called the peritoneum

abdominal cavity → peritoneum

Pelvic cavity

• the pelvic cavity encloses the reproductive organs

• the pelvic cavity is bounded by the bony pelvis

Body cavities

• serous membranes cover and lubricate most of the organs found within the ventral cavities

• serous membranes are continuous membranes that fold to produce two portions, the parietal serosa and the visceral serosa

• parietal serosa lines the walls of a cavity

• visceral serosa lines the organs within a cavity

• serosa includes the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum

Resolution

the ability to distinguish two closely spaced objects as separate is known as resolution (or resolving power)

Virtual image

• the optics of the microscrope produce an image of the specimen projected onto the retina of your eye

→ this is called a virtual image

• the image is reversed and upside down relative to the specimen

Field of view

• the circular area visible through the oculars is known as the field of view

• the field of view decreases in actual size as the magnification increases

• if you know the actual size of the field of view given at a magnification, you can use this to estimate the size of an object within this field of view

Stage micrometer

use this to measure the field of view at each magnification

Working distance

the distance between the bottom of the objective lens and the specimen

Depth of field

the depth through which the specimen is clearly in focus is called the depth of field

depth of field decreases with increasing magnification

Histology

study of tissues

The 4 primary tissue types

1. Epithelial'

2. Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

E.C.M.N

Epithelial tissue

tissue sheets of cells that line the body surfaces, either external or internal

Muscle tissue

tissues are excitable tissues where a specific cell type is embedded within a non-living (acellular) matrix

Nervous tissue

tissues are excitable tissues (“told to do something”) that are capable of transferring and integrating signals from one part of the body to another

Epithelial body tissues line ________

body surfaces (inside or out)

Epithelial tissues function in ________

• protection

• absorption

• filtration

• secretion

• excretion

• and sensory reception

→ epithelial tissues are embryologically derived from either ectoderm or endoderm

What is polarity in epithelial tissue?

(has 2 sides → apical =top and basal = bottom)

Epithelial has two different sides

1. Apical surface: faces an external or internal open space

2. Basal surface: faces the underlying connective tissue

What are specialized contacts in epithelial tissue?

cells are joined together via specialized junctions to form sheets

What forms the basement membrane?

1. Basal lamina: formed by epithelial cells

2. Reticular lamina: formed by the underlying connective tissue

→ forms from a basal lamina (formed by epithelial cells) and a reticular lamina (formed by underlying connective tissue)

Basal = bottom

reticular = connective

What is the difference between the basal lamina and reticular lamina?

• Basal lamina = epithelial cells (bottom layer)

• Reticular lamina = connective tissue (formed by the underlying connective tissue)

Characteristics of epithelial tissues

• Avascular (NO BLOOD vessels in the tissue layers): epithelia do NOT have a direct blood supply, but are supplied with nutrients via blood supply of the underlying connective tissue

• Regenerative: epithelial cells (at least in a portion of the epithelium) will readily divide and regenerate the epithelium. This is especially important for epithelia that form protective layers, since they are often damaged through friction or chemical damage

Classification of epithelial tissues

→ 2 criteria are used to classify epithelial tissue into specific tissue types : number of layers and individual cell shape

1. Number of layers

→ SIMPLE epithelia are composed of a single layer of cells. (ONE)

→ STRATIFIED epithelia are composed of multiple layers of cells, from two layers to many layers (MORE THAN 1 LAYER)

2. Cell shape:

→ SQUAMOUS cells are flat. The individual cells are wider than they are tall.

→ CUBOIDAL cells are cube-shaped. The individual cells are the same width as their height

→ COLUMNAR cells are column shaped. The individual cells are taller than they are wide

• Specific epithelial tissues are named by giving the layer type and then the cell type

ex: Simple squamous epithelium