Human Anatomy & Physiology II - Topic 8

Anorexia

a serious and potentially life-threatening eating disorder characterized by an extreme fear of gaining weight and a distorted body image

Deficiency

a state of insufficiency or lack of something essential

Calorie

amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (1000 g) of water by 1 °C

Metabolic rate

amount of energy consumed minus the amount of energy expended by the body

Catabolic reactions

reactions that break down larger molecules into their constituent parts

Anabolic reactions

reactions that build smaller molecules into larger molecules

Carbohydrates

the most common source of energy to fuel the body

Lipids

about one-half of excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue under the skin, whereas the rest is stored in adipocytes in other tissues and organs

Proteins

polymers, can be broken down into their monomers, individual amino acids

Nucleic Acids

present in most of the foods you eat; during digestion DNA and various RNAs are broken down into their constituent nucleotides

The gastrointestinal tract

the GI tract or digestive system, it is a crucial part of the human body responsible for the digestion and absorption of food and nutrients

Nucleotides

the basic building blocks of nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid); these molecules carry and store genetic information in cells and play crucial roles in various cellular processes

Catabolic hormones

hormones that stimulate the breakdown of larger molecules

Anabolic hormones

hormones that stimulate the synthesis of new, larger molecules

Hyperhidrosis

is a medical condition characterized by excessive sweating that goes beyond what is necessary to regulate body temperature

Appetite

refers to the natural, physiological desire or craving for food.; it is the sensation that drives individuals to seek and consume food to satisfy their nutritional and energy needs

Monosaccharide

smallest, monomeric sugar molecule

Polysaccharides

complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharides

Glycolysis

Series of metabolic reactions that breaks down into glucose into private and produces ATP

Krebs Cycle

Converts pyruvate into CO2 and high-energy FADH2, NADH, and ATP molecules

Pyruvate

Three carbon end product of glycolysis and starting material that is converted into acetyl CoA that enters the Krebs cycle

Cori cycle

A metabolic pathway that involves the conversion of lactic acid produced during anaerobic glycolysis into glucose in the liver

Gluconeogenesis

A metabolic pathway in which the body synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors in the absence of oxygen

Dephosphorylation

A chemical process that involves the removal of a phosphate group from a molecule, typically a phosphorylated compound

Terminal electron acceptor

A molecule or atom that serves as the final recipient of electrons in an electron transport chain (ETC) during cellular respiration

Acetyl Coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA)

Starting molecule of the Krebs cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation

Process that converts high energy NADH and FADH2 into ATP

Electron transport chain (ETC)

ATP production pathway in which electrons are passed through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions that forms water and produces a proton gradient

Succinyl CoA

Intermediate molecule in the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) that plays a crucial role in the production of ATP, a form of cellular energy. It is formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

GTP ( Guanosine Triphosphate)

molecule similar to ATP but primarily used as an energy source in specific cellular processes. It carries high-energy phosphate bonds that can be hydrolyzed to release energy

Hepatocytes

Major functional cells of the liver responsible for detoxification, protein synthesis , and nutrient storage

Triglycerides

Lipids or fats consisting of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone

Monoglyceride molecules

Lipid consists of a single fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Hormone that stimulates the release of pancreatic lipase and the contraction of the gallbladder to release bile salts

Lipolysis

Breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids

Ketone bodies

Alternative source of energy when glucose is limited, created when too much acetyl CoA is created during fatty acid oxidation

Lipogenesis

Synthesis of lipids that occurs in the liver or adipose tissues

Adipose tissue

Known as body fat; specialized connective tissue that stores energy in the form of fat cells( adipocytes) and plays a role in regulating metabolism, insulation and cushioning

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

It is a serious and potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes, particularly in type 1 diabetes; occurs when there is severe shortage of insulin, leading to the production of ketones in the body

Pepsin

Enzyme that begins to break down proteins in the stomach

Secretin

Hormone released in the small intestine to aid in digestion

Proteolysis

Process of breaking proteins into smaller peptides

Urea cycle

Process that converts potentially toxic nitrogen waste into urea that can be eliminated through the kidneys

Transamination

Transfer of an amine group from one molecule to another as a way to turn nitrogen waste into ammonia so that it can enter the urea cycle

Elastase

il is an enzyme that specifically targets and degrades elastin, a protein found in the ECM of connective tissues like skin, blood vessels, and lungs

Absorptive state

The fed state; the metabolic state occurring during the first few hours after ingesting food in which the body is digesting food and absorbing the nutrients

Insulin

Hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the uptake of glucose into the cells

Postabsorptive state

The fasting state; the metabolic state occurring after digestion when food is no longer the body’s source of energy and it must rely on stored glycogen

Concentration gradient

Gradual change in substance concentration from one area to another, influencing diffusion, osmosis, active transport, and various biological and chemical processes

Thermoregulation

Process of regulating the temperature of the body

Thermoneutral

External temperature at which the body does not expend any energy for thermoregulation, about 84°F

Convection

Transfer of heat between the skin and air or water

Radiation

Transfer of heat via infrared waves

Evaporation

transfer of heat that occurs when water changes from a liquid to a gas

Metabolic rate

Amount of energy consumed minus the amount of energy expended by the body

Hypothermia

the body’s core temperature drops to a dangerously low level, typically below 95 degrees Fahrenheit

Infrared waves

Electromagnetic radiation used in thermal imaging to detect temperature variations aiding in animal tracking and health assessment

Relative humidity

The amount of water vapor in the air, impacting an organism’s ability to regulate temperature and water loss through processes like respiration and transpiration