review chap 1-4

Caudal

• toward the rear/tail end

Movements for coronal / frontal plane

• movement: lateral flexion (of neck/spine, side to side), abduction, adduction

• axis for movements: anterior to posterior

Movements for transverse / cross-sectional plane

• rotation

• axis for movements: superior to inferior

Movements for sagittal plane

• flexion (bending) & extension (straightening)

• axis for movements: lateral to medial

Rostral

• toward the nose/mouth

Axial region

• head, neck, trunk

• forms the main vertical axis of the body

Appendicular region

• upper & lower limbs

Olecranal

• posterior aspect of the elbow

Antecubital / cubital region

• region anterior to the elbow

• front of elbow

Cervical

• neck

Coxal

• hip

Cranial

• upper part of skull that protects the brain

Crural

• leg (the portion of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle)

Sural

• calf

• posterior aspect of the leg

Inguinal

• groin (something used to indicate the crease or junction of the thigh with the trunk)

• lateral to the pubic region

Mental

• chin

pollex

• finger thumb

hallux

• big toe

Leg bones

• fibular (lateral)

• tibia (medial)

Arm bones

• radius (lateral) thumb side

• ulna (medial) pinky side

Posterior aspect (body cavity)

• in the back

• completely encased in bone

• physically & developmentally distinct from ventral cavities

  • subdivded into cranial cavity & vertebral canal

Ventral cavity

• larger than posterior cavity

• anteriorly placed in the body

• does not completely encase organs in bone

• partitioned by thoracic diaphragm into

  • superior thoracic cavity (heart and lungs)

  • inferior abdominopelvic cavity (digestive and reproductive organs)

• lined with serous membranes

  • parietal layer: lines internal body wall surface

  • visceral layer: covers the organs

Mediastinum

• median space in thoracic cavity

• contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, & major blood vessels that connect to the heart

• does NOT include lungs, its the space between that

Pericardium

• 2 layered serous membrane associated with heart

• parietal ___: outer layer, forms the sac around heart

• visceral ___: forms the hearts external surface

• ____l cavity: space between parietal & visceral layers containing serous fluid

Pleura

• 2 layered serous membrane associated with lungs

• parietal ___: outer layer lines internal surface of thoracic wall

• visceral ___: inner layer covers external surface of lungs

• ___l cavity: space between parietal & visceral layers containing serous fluid

Peritoneum

• 2-layered serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity

• parietal ___: outer layer, lines the internal walls of abdominopelvic cavity

• visceral ___: inner layer, covers the external surface of most abdominal & pelvic organs

• ___oneal cavity: potential space between parietal & visceral layers containing serous fluid

Normal range for homeostatic variable (body temp)

37 C / 98.6 F

Normal range for homeostatic variable (blood glucose)

80 to 110 mg/dL

Normal range for homeostatic variable (blood pressure)

90 to 120/60 to 80 mm Hg

What relies on ionizing radiaition

• x rays

• angiography

• CT

• PET scan (small amount)

Most common elements of the human body (99% of weight)

most

1. Oxygen

2. Carbon

3. Hydrogen

4. Nitrogen

5. Calcium

6. Phosphorus

least

*Oh, Can Harry Not Cook Pasta

Minor elements of the human body (less than 1% of weight)

most

1. Sulfur

2. Potassium

3. Sodium

4. Chlorine

5. Magnesium

6. Iron

least

• SPS CMI

Left side of periodic table

• loose /donate electrons (to form a completie valence shell)

• form cations when they react

Right side of periodic table

• gain electrons (to form a completie valence shell)

• form anions when they react

average atomic mass

• the weighted average of the atomic masses of its naturally occurring isotopes

Intracellular

• the liquid found inside cells

• more negative

ex. potassium (K^+), phosphate (PO4³-), CO2, protein, magnesium (Mg²+),

“Poke Inside” “Kept inside” “Keep Most Positive” “KPMPC”

Extracellular

• the liquid found outside of cells

• more positive

• ex. sodium (Na^+), calcium (Ca²+), O2, chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3^-)

• “NaCl is out in the ocean, and we are salty on the outside” / “NaCaClB” “NaClCa + bicarbonate

Common cations

• Sodium ion (Na^+)

• Potassium ion (K^+)

• Calcium Ion (Ca²+)

• Magnesium ion (Mg²+)

• Hydrogen ion (H^+)

“Silly Penquins Can Make Hugs”

Sodium ion (Na^+)

• most common extracellular cation

• particpant in conducting electrical signals in nerves & muscle

• most important in osmotic movement of water

• sodium gradient involved in cotransport of other substances across a plasma membrane

Potassium ion (K^+)

• most common intracellular cation

• participant in conducting electrical signals in nerves & muscle

• role in glycogen storage in liver & muscle

• function in pH balance

• Regulates heart rhythm and supports muscle contraction

Calcium Ion (Ca²+)

• extracellular

• hardens bone & teeth

• muscle contraction

• exocytosis (including release of neurotransmitter)

• blood clotting

• second messenger in hormonal stimulation of cells

Magnesium ion (Mg²+)

• required for ATP production

• Supports immune function and helps produce energy

Hydrogen ion (H^+)

• one proton + one electron

• concentration determines pH of blood & other fluids of the body

Common anions

• Chloride ion (Cl^-)

• Bicarbonate ion (HCO3^-)

• Phosphate ion (PO4)

Cheesy Burger Please

Chloride ion (Cl^-)

• alters nerve cell responsiveness to stimulation

• component of stomach acid (HCl)

• ___ shift in erythrocytes

• keeps body fluids balances

Bicarbonate ion

• conversion of CO2 gas to HCO3^- which is transported in the blood

• buffering of pH in blood

  • acts as a weak base

    • bind with excess hydrogen ions to create carbonic acid

Phosphate ion

• as Ca3 (PO4)2 it hardens bone & teeth

• component of phospholipids (membranes)

• component of nucleotides, including ATP & nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

• most common intracellular anion

• intracelular buffer

Anomalies in the period table

• iron (Fe)

  • it can form more than 1 type of ion, either a ferrous (Fe²+) or a ferric (Fe³+) ion

Whats the most common ionic compound in the body?

• calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)

  • hardens bone & teeth

GICoS

• Give electron = Ionic Bond

• Covalent Bonds = Sharing electrons

What elements most commonly form covalent bonds in the human body

• Hydrogen (wants 1 bond)

• Oxygen (wants 2 bonds)

• Nitrogen (wants 3 bonds)

• Carbon (wants 4 bonds)

HONC

What determines electronegativity

• both by the # of protons in the nucleus (pull on electrons) and the proximity of the valence electron shells to the nucleus

• top right of periodic table is the most __

Least to greatest electronegativity for 4 most common elements composing living organisms

hydrogen < carbon < nitrogen < oxygen
"Have Coffee Now, Okay

HCNO

Nonpolar examples

• C—C

• O—O

• oxygen (O2)

• triglyercide

• carbon dioxide (CO2) (

  • because its linear, symmetrical shape causes its individual bond pulls to cancel out

  • has polar covalent bonds that extend in opposite directions can be __ bc the partial charges cancel each other

• C—H (the exception) / hydrocarbons

  • methane gas (CH4)

Polar examples

• O—H

• C—O

• N—H

• N—O

• water (H2O)

• glucose (C6H12O6)

• ethanol (C2H5OH)

• ammonia (NH3)

• carbohydrates

• hydroxl (-OH)

• carboxyl or carboxylic acid (—COOH)

• amine (-NH2)

• phosphate (PO4 ³-)

Ionic vs Covalent vs Hydrogen

Bond Type	What Happens	Charge Type	Relative Strength	Example
Ionic	Complete transfer of electrons	Full positive and negative ions	Strong	Table salt (Nacl
Covalent	Equal or unequal sharing of electrons	Neutral or partial charges (polar/nonpolar)	Strongest overall / Very stable	Water (H2O)
Hydrogen	Attraction between molecules (no electron exchange)	Partial positive (H) and partial negative atom	Weak individuall, collectively stong	Water droplet surface tension / DNA strands

Organic molecules

• carbon + hydrogen

• are (or were) part of a living organism

  • ex. glucose, proteins, triglyceridedes

• in__ ___ is all other molecules

  • ex. water, salts, acids, bases

Water

• is polar

  • oxygen atom has 2 partial negative charges

  • each hydrogen has 1 single partial positive charge

  • can form 4 hydrogen bonds with other water molecules

• inorganic

• universal solvent (esp of the body)

• bathes organs in fluid which provides protection & support

• neutral

  • + hydrogen ions (H^+) = - hydroxide ions (-OH)

• 2/3 of body weight

• functions

  • transports

    • substances dissolved in water move easily throughout body

  • lubricates

    • decreases friction between body structures

  • cushions

    • absorbs sudden force of body movements

  • excretes wastes

    • unwanted substances dissolve in water are easily eliminated

Properties of water

• cohesion

  • attraction between water molecules due to hydrogen bonding

• surface tension

  • inward pulling of cohesive forces at surface of water / tendency of a liquids surface to resist breaking when placed under stress

  • causes moist sacs of air in lungs to collapse

    • surfactant, a lipoprotein, prevents collapse

• adhesion

  • attraction between water molecule & a substance other than water

• high specific heat

  • • Amount of energy required to increase temperature of 1 gram of a

    substance by 1 degree Celsius

    • measures how much heat water can absorb before its temperature changes

    • water’s value extremely high due to energy needed to break hydrogen bonds

    • contributes to keeping body temperature constant

• high heat of vaporization

  • • Heat required for release of molecules from a liquid phase into a

    gaseous phase for 1 gram of a substance

    • Water’s value very high due to hydrogen bonding

    • Sweating cools body

    • Excess heat dissipated as water evaporates

Substances that dissolve in water

• hydrophilic substances

• ions (charged stuff)

• polar organic molecules (glucose, carbohydrates)

• water surrounds substances, forms a hydration shell

• some substances dissolve but remain intact

  • for ex, glucose & alcohol

  • nonelectrolytes remain intact but do not conduct current

• some substances dissolve & dissociate (separate)

  • NaCl disscoiates into Na^+ and Cl^- ions

  • salts, acids and bases, such as HCI

  • electrolytes can conduct current

Nonelectrolytes

• dissolve & remain intact

• the solution cannot conduct an electric current because it lacks free charges.

  • ex. polar organic molecules, glucose

Electrolytes

• dissolve & dissociate

• breaks apart into charged particles called ions in water

• free-moving ions carry an electric current through the water

  • ex. ionic compounds, salts (NaCl), acids (HCI), bases (NaOH)

Micelle

• tiny clusters of molecules that trap oils and fats on the inside while staying dissolved in water on the outside.

• formed by a single layer (monolayer) of surfactant or lipid molecules / bile salts

  • are amphiphilic

• found in digestive tract

  • associated w the breakdown & absorption of nonpolar molecules (like triglycerides)

Which property contributes to body temperature regulation through sweating?

• high heat of vaporization

• waters high specific heat

hydronium ion

• H3O^+

• a water molecule that picks up an extra hydrogen ion from another as a result of dissociation

• H2O + H2O → H3O^+ + OH^- simplified to H2O → H + OH^-

Acid

• proton donor: dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ion/protons (H^+) and an anion

• increases concentrations of free H^+

• strong ___: more dissociation of H^+

  • for ex, HCl in the stomach

    • found in stomach juice to break down food

• weak ___: less dissociation of H^+

  • for ex, carbonic acid (H2CO3) in the blood

    • found in blood to help maintain pH balance.

• summary: substance A (an __ in water) → H^+ Anion

• + water = _ic solution

Base

• proton acceptor: accepts H^+ when added to solution

• decreases concentration of free H^+

• stronger __: more absorption of H^+

  • for ex, ammonia & bleach

• weaker __: less absorption of H^+

  • for ex, bicarbonate (HCO3^-) in blood & in secretions released into small intestine

• summary: substance B (a __ in water) + H^+ → B—-H

• __ + water = __ic solution

Examples of acidic things (pH<7)

• hydrochloric acid (strongest)

• lemon juice, stomach acid

• wine

• grapefruit juice

• tomato juice

• urine

• milk, saliva

Examples of basic things (pH>7)

• sodium hydroxide (strongest)

• household bleach

• household ammonia

• antacid

• seawater

• human blood

Buffers

• keep pH stable / help prevent pH changes if excess acid or base is added

• act to accept H^+ from excess acid or donate H^+ to neutralize base

  • carbonic acid (H2CO3) / (weak acid) & bicarbonate (HCO3^-) (weak base) buffer blood pH

  • both help maintain blood pH in a critical range (7.35 to 7.45)

Mixtures

• formed from combining 2 or more substances

• 2 defining features

  • substances mixed are not chemically changed

  • substances can be separated by physical means

    • ex. evaporation or filtering

• types of water __ = suspensions, colloids (emulsion), solutions

Suspension

• material large in size than 1 mm mixed with water (very large)

• heterogenous mixture

• particle are heavy & settle at bottom if left standing

  • does not remain mixed unless in motion

• blocks/scatters light heavily

  • appears cloudy or opaque

  • ex. blood cells within plasma or sand in water

Colloid

• smaller (polar) particles than a suspension, but larger than those in a solution (medium)

• heterogeneous mixture

• remains mixed when not in motion / particles do not settle when left undisturbed

• scatters light

• appears opaque / mily

  • ex. fluid in cell (cytosol) & fluid in blood plasma, milk, fog, gelatin, smoke

  • ex. Blood plasma contains water mixed with proteins

• special category: emulsion

  • water & a nonpolar liquid substance

  • ex. oil & vinegar salad dressing, breast milk

  • does not mix unless shaken

Solution

• homogeneous mixture of material smaller than 1 nanometer (very small)

  • dissolves in water

  • does not scatter light, does not settle if solution not in motion

  • ex. sugar water, salt water, soda, blood plasma

Emulsion

• special category of colloid

• water (polar) & nonpolar liquid substance

  • ex. oil & vinegar salad dressing, breast milk

  • does not mix unless shaken

Mass/volume (solution concentration)

• expressed as: mass of solute per volume of solution

• unit of measurement: ug solute/dL solution & mg solute/dL solution

• ex: results from blood test

  • normal blood concentration of iron is within the range 40-50 ug/dL

  • normal blood concentration of glucose is between 70-110mg/dL

Mass/volume percent (solution concentration)

• expressed as: grams of solute per 100 milliliters (mL) of solution

• unit of measurement: grams/100 mL

• ex: IV solutions

  • 5% dextrose intravenous (IV) solution (D5W) has a concentration of 5 grams of dextrose (glucose) per 100 mL of solution

  • physiologic saline (0.9% NaCl) has a 0.9 gram of NaCl per 100 mL of solution

Molarity (solution concentration)

• expressed as: moles of solute per liter of solution

  • moles solute/L solution

• unit of measurement: moles solute/L solution

• alters with changes in temp

  • water temp above 4C, solution expands & __ decreases

• is less accurate, but more easily measured in the body so more often used

• ex:

  • molar solution of glucose is made by place 180.10 grams (its molecular mass) of glucose into a container & adding enough water until it measures 1 liter)

  • 0.164 mol/L solution

Molality (solution concentration)

• expressed as: moles of solute per kilogram of solvent

  • moles solute/kg solvent

• unit of measurement: moles solute/kg solvent

• does not alter with changes in temp

• is more accurate, but more difficult to measure in human body

• ex:

  • solution of one __ is made by placing 180.10 grams of glucose into a container & adding 1 kg of water

  • 0.164 mol/kg solvent

Osmoles (osm)

• reflect whether a substance either dissolves (nonelectrolytes), or dissolves & dissociates (electrolytes) when placed into a solution

• can be expressed as either osmolarity or osmolality

• unit of measurement for the # of particles in a solution

  • generally used to reflect the extent a solution is able to alter water movement through osmosis

• if a solute dissolves but does not dissociate, osmolarity = 1 ___

  • ex. glucose, amino acids or proteins placed in water

• if solute both dissolves & dissociates = there is a change in the # of particles after the solute is in solution

  • ex. NaCl & CaCl2

• 1 molar (1M) solution of NaCl dissociates in solution to form both 1 M Na^+ & 1 M Cl^-

  • thus, 2 osm

• Each molecule of CaCl2 dissolves into 3 particles: 1 Ca²+ & 2 Cl^-

  • thus, 1 M CaCl2 = 3 osm

Millosmoles (mOsm)

• range of values associated with the body is generally much smaller than osmoles so this is used

• 1 osm = 1000 mOsm

• normal blood serum may be expressed as either 275 to 295 mOsm per liter or kilogram

Functional groups

• 2 or more atoms that, when present together on a molecule, always exhibit the same specific chemical characteristics

• may act as an acid & release H^+ (like a carboxyl group)

• may act as a base & bind H+ (like a amine group)

• ex. (listed are polar & able to form hydrogen bonds, increasing the molecules solubility in water)

  • hydroxl (-OH)

  • carboxyl or carboxylic acid (—COOH)

  • amine (-NH2)

  • phosphate (PO4 ³-)

Biological macromolecules

• Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, & Nucleic acids (CLPN clip in")

• large organic molecules synthesized by the body

  • (NCHOPS)

    • always contain carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen

    • some may also have nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur

• diverse “carbon skeletons”

  • hydrocarbons: contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms

  • contain functional groups (typically more than 1)

    • most are polar & able to hydrogen bond

    • some act like acids (ex. carboxyl group)

    • some act like bases (ex. amine group)

Hydroxyl

• Properties

  • polar

  • forms hydrogen bonds

  • increases molecules solubility in water

• Representative Molecules

  • carbohydrates

  • proteins

  • nucleic acids

  • lipids

Carboxyl -COOH (carboxylic acid)

• Properties

  • polar

  • forms hydrogen bonds

  • increases molecules solubility in water

  • acts as an acid

    • releases H^+

• Representative Molecules

  • proteins

  • lipids

Amine (-NH2)

• Properties

  • polar

  • forms hydrogen bonds

  • increases molecules solubility in water

  • acts as a base

    • binds H^+

• Representative Molecules

  • proteins

  • nucleic acids

Phosphate (PO4 ³-)

• Properties

  • polar

  • forms hydrogen bonds

  • increases molecules solubility in water

  • forms phosphodiester bonds

  • acts as an acid

• Representative Molecules

  • nucleic acids

  • phospholipids

  • ATP

List the three biological macromolecules that are polymers and the monomers that compose them.

• nucleic acid

  • polymer: DNA, RNA

  • monomer: nucleotides

• carbohydrates

  • polymer: starch, glycogen, cellulose

  • monomer: monosaccharides

• protein:

  • polymer: polypeptides

  • monomer: amino acids

Ethanol

C2 H5 OH

Which element both (a) forms a common ion and (b) is a common element in biological macromolecules?

• hydrogen

  • present in all 4 classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)

  • looses a single electron to form the hydrogen ion (H^+)

What functional groups may act as an acid?

• Carboxyl (-COOH)

• Phosphate (-PO4 ²-)

Triglycerides

• composition: glycerol & 3 fatty acids

  • fatty acids

    • vary in length & of double bonds

    • saturated: lack double bonds

    • unsaturated: 1 double bond

    • polysaturated: 2 or more double bonds

• function: long-term energy storage in adipose connective tissue, structural support, cushioning, insulation of the body

Phospholipids

• composition: glycerol & 2 fatty acids, a phosphate & various organic groups

• are amphipathic molecules

  • polar head (hydrophilic): glycerol, phosphate, organic groups

  • 2 nonpolar tails (hydrophobic): fatty acids

• function: component of membranes (plasma membrane), serves as chemical barriers of cell membranes

Steroids

• composition: 4 rings composed predominantly of hydrocarbons that differ in the side chains extending from the rings

  • 4 carbon rings: three have 6 carbon atoms, one has 5 carbon atoms

• ex: cholesterol, __ hormones, bile salts

• functions:

  • cholesterol: component of plasma membranes & the precursor molecule for synthesis of other steroids

  • ___hormones: regulatory molecules released by certain endocrine glands (testosterone, estrogen)

  • bile salts: facilitate micelle formation in the digestive tract

Eicosanoids

• composition: modified 20-carbon fatty acids, synthesized from arachidonic acid, membrane component / from phospholipids composing the plasma membranes

• act locally

• classes: prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes

• function: locally acting signaling molecules associated with all body systems, primary functions in both inflammatory response of the immune system & communication within the nervous system

Saturated

• lack double bonds

• most animal fats are __

• most are solid at room temp

Unsaturated

• one double bond

  • “uno ___”

• most vegetable fats are __

• most are liquid at room temp

• generally healthier

• can be converted to the latter through hydrogenation

hydrogenation

• a chemical reaction that adds molecular hydrogen (H₂) to another compound

• turning unsaturated bonds into saturated single bonds

• partial __ may lead to trans fats

  • increases risk of heart attack & stroke

Carbohydrates

• hydrated carbon

• an —-H & an — OH are usually attached to every carbon

  • n = # of carbon atoms

• ex. glucose, glycogen

Monosaccharides

• simple sugar monomers

• ex “Go For Ruby & Gold ”

  • Glucose

  • Fructose

  • Ribose (+deoxyribose)

  • Galactose