Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement

What was the position of the monarch in 1625?

The monarch was the source of law and government in the three kingdoms and ruled by divine authority. The king was also head of the Church of England and appointed common-law judges.

What was the King-in-Parliament?

Statute law was made through the King-in-Parliament, meaning the king worked with Parliament to create statute law. However, the king also possessed prerogative powers that could be exercised without Parliament.

What was the role of Parliament in 1625?

Parliament was called only occasionally, but it was becoming increasingly important because the king needed parliamentary taxation. Parliament could also challenge royal ministers and policies.

What problems did Charles I inherit in 1625?

Charles inherited war with Spain from James I and became involved in the wider religious conflict in central Europe. The European conflict had begun in 1618 and was connected to the struggle over the Palatinate.

Why had James I considered a Spanish marriage?

James I had attempted to arrange a Spanish marriage for Charles in the hope of improving relations with Spain. He also hoped this would help restore the Palatinate to his daughter Elizabeth and her husband.

Who was Buckingham and why was he important?

The Duke of Buckingham was a powerful royal favourite who had major influence over foreign policy. He persuaded James I to pursue war and later remained influential under Charles I.

What happened during the failed expedition to Cádiz in 1625?

English forces attempted to attack Cádiz but the expedition failed. The failure increased criticism of Buckingham and contributed to Charles's financial and political difficulties.

Why was Parliament dissolved in 1626?

Parliament was discussing the impeachment of Buckingham over his role in foreign policy and military failures. Charles dissolved Parliament to protect his favourite from the attack.

What was the forced loan of 1627?

Charles demanded money from his subjects without parliamentary approval to finance war. Those who refused could be imprisoned, creating major constitutional tensions over the limits of royal authority.

What was the Five Knights case?

Five men challenged their imprisonment after refusing to pay the forced loan. The case raised important questions about habeas corpus and whether the king could imprison people without stating a legal cause.

What was the Petition of Right in 1628?

The Petition of Right demanded that the king could not impose forced loans, imprison people without trial, impose martial law in peacetime, or force people to lodge soldiers. Charles accepted it, although disputes over royal authority continued.

Why was Buckingham assassinated?

Buckingham was assassinated in August 1628 by John Felton. His death removed Charles's most influential minister just as relations between the king and Parliament were already under serious strain.

What were the Three Resolutions of 1629?

The Commons declared that Arminian religious ideas were dangerous, that paying Tonnage and Poundage without parliamentary approval was illegal, and that anyone who paid it was betraying parliamentary rights. Charles responded by dissolving Parliament.

What began in 1629?

Charles dissolved Parliament in March 1629 and began a period of personal rule. He governed without calling Parliament until 1640, relying on alternative sources of income and royal prerogative.

Why was personal rule initially relatively calm?

At first, contemporaries did not react strongly to Charles ruling without Parliament. The government appeared orderly and efficient, although later opponents described the period as the "Eleven Years Tyranny."

Who were Laud and Wentworth?

William Laud and Thomas Wentworth were important administrators during personal rule. Laud transformed religious policy while Wentworth became known for efficient government and administration.

What was the Treaty of Madrid of 1630?

The Treaty of Madrid helped establish peace with Spain, while Charles also achieved peace with France. This reduced the need for expensive foreign wars and helped improve royal finances.

How did Charles raise money during personal rule?

Charles used Crown lands, impositions, feudal payments, monopolies, distraint of knighthood, and Ship Money. These methods allowed him to raise revenue without regularly calling Parliament.

What was distraint of knighthood?

Landowners with more than £40 of land could be required to become knights or pay a fine. Charles revived this source of revenue as part of his efforts to strengthen Crown finances.

What were monopolies under Charles I?

Monopolies gave individuals or companies control over the production or sale of particular goods. Charles used them as a source of revenue, including a controversial monopoly on soap.

What was Ship Money?

Ship Money was traditionally a tax used for coastal defence, but Charles expanded it beyond coastal areas. From 1636 it was collected nationwide and raised around £200,000 per year.

How did Ship Money develop between 1634 and 1636?

In 1634 Charles collected Ship Money from coastal areas, then extended it inland in 1635. By 1636 it was being collected annually across the country.

Why was Ship Money important to Charles?

It provided Charles with a regular source of income without needing Parliament to approve taxation. This strengthened the financial independence of the Crown but also became a major focus of opposition.

Why did Puritans oppose Laud's religious policies?

Puritans disliked Laud's emphasis on strict ritual, formality, and religious uniformity. They believed these changes moved the Church of England in a direction that was too close to Catholicism.

What was the High Commission?

The High Commission was a church court used to enforce religious conformity. It was associated with the religious policies of Laud and became unpopular among Puritans.

Why did some Puritan clergy leave for New England?

Some Puritan clergy and gentry opposed the religious changes imposed by Laud. They emigrated to New England in search of greater religious freedom.

How did Laud change churches?

Laud encouraged more formal decoration and religious ceremony in churches. Altars were railed off, which alarmed Puritans who saw these changes as evidence of growing Catholic influence.

Why did Catholic influence at court cause suspicion?

Charles's wife Henrietta Maria was Catholic, and Catholic influence was increasingly visible at court. A papal ambassador also arrived in England in 1635, increasing fears among Protestants.

Who was John Hampden?

John Hampden was a leading opponent of Ship Money who became involved in a famous legal challenge. His resistance made him an important symbol of opposition to Charles's financial policies.

What happened in Hampden's Ship Money case?

Hampden refused to pay Ship Money in 1636, leading to a test case in 1637. The judges ruled narrowly in favour of the king by 7–5, but the case damaged the government's popularity.

Who were Burton, Bastwick and Prynne?

They were critics of the government who were punished by the Star Chamber in 1637. Their treatment became an important example of the government's harsh response to opposition.

Why did Ship Money become less effective by 1639?

Although Ship Money initially produced significant revenue, collection became increasingly difficult. By 1639 its yield had fallen to around 20% as government attention shifted towards the war with Scotland.

Why did Charles try to change the Scottish Church?

Charles wanted the Scottish Church to become more like the Church of England. He underestimated Scottish opposition and ignored the strength of the Presbyterian Kirk.

What was the Book of Canons of 1636?

The Book of Canons introduced changes intended to bring greater religious conformity to Scotland. It was part of Charles's attempt to reshape the Scottish Church.

What was the National Covenant?

The National Covenant was created in 1638 by Scots resisting Charles's religious policies. It defended the Presbyterian Kirk and united opposition to the king's attempts to impose religious changes.

What was the First Bishops' War?

It was the first military conflict between Charles I and the Scottish Covenanters over religious policy. The Treaty of Berwick in 1639 ended the conflict without resolving the underlying dispute.

Why did Charles call the Short Parliament in 1640?

Charles needed money to finance another campaign against the Scots. He therefore called Parliament in April 1640, but it refused to provide money without addressing its grievances.

Why was the Short Parliament dissolved?

Charles dissolved the Short Parliament after only about three weeks because MPs wanted to discuss their grievances before granting taxation. The Scottish crisis then became more serious.

When did the Long Parliament begin?

The Long Parliament began in November 1640. It became the main force behind attempts to reform Charles's government and limit royal power.

Who was Strafford?

Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, had been an important administrator for Charles and was arrested by the Long Parliament in 1640. Parliament regarded him as a major symbol of Charles's authoritarian government.

What was the Triennial Act of 1641?

The Triennial Act required Parliament to meet regularly and stated that the king could not dissolve Parliament without its consent. It significantly reduced Charles's ability to govern without Parliament.

What happened to Strafford in 1641?

Parliament used an Act of Attainder against Strafford after his trial became difficult to secure a conviction. Charles was pressured into approving the measure, and Strafford was executed in May 1641.

What reforms did Parliament make in June 1641?

Parliament abolished the Prerogative Courts and ended Ship Money. These measures directly attacked important instruments of Charles's personal rule.

What were the Ten Propositions?

The Ten Propositions were demands for greater parliamentary control over the king's advisers and other areas of government. They reflected growing concern that Charles could not be trusted to govern without parliamentary restrictions.

What happened during the Irish Rebellion of 1641?

Rebellion broke out in Ireland in October 1641. Exaggerated reports of massacres increased fear in England and made Parliament more suspicious of giving Charles control of an army.

Why was control of the army controversial in 1641–42?

Parliament believed Charles might use an army against his political opponents. This created a major dispute over whether the king or Parliament should control the militia.

What was the Grand Remonstrance?

The Grand Remonstrance was a list of grievances against Charles passed by the Commons on 22 November 1641. It passed by only 11 votes, showing how deeply divided Parliament had become.

What happened when Charles tried to arrest five MPs?

On 4 January 1642 Charles entered the Commons with about 300 soldiers to arrest five MPs, including Pym and Hampden. The MPs escaped, and the attempt badly damaged trust between Charles and Parliament.

What were the Nineteen Propositions?

The Nineteen Propositions were Parliament's demands in June 1642 for greater control over the king's advisers, the militia, and other areas of government. Charles rejected them.

When did the English Civil War begin?

Charles raised his standard at Nottingham in August 1642, marking the beginning of open civil war. The conflict developed between Royalist supporters of the king and Parliamentary forces.

Why did the Royalists initially have advantages?

Charles was supported by much of the gentry and nobility, while Prince Rupert and Prince Maurice provided strong cavalry leadership. The Royalists therefore had significant military strength early in the war.

How did Parliament finance the war?

Parliament introduced measures such as the excise to raise money for its military forces. Financial organisation helped Parliament sustain a prolonged war against the king.

What was the New Model Army?

The New Model Army was a professional Parliamentary army of about 22,000 soldiers led by Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell. It became the most effective military force on Parliament's side.

When did Charles surrender?

Charles surrendered to the Scots in April 1646 after the Royalist defeat. Parliament then began considering how the monarchy and church should be reorganised.

What were the Newcastle Propositions?

The Newcastle Propositions demanded that Parliament control military officers and the militia for 20 years and that bishops be abolished. They also proposed a Presbyterian church settlement lasting three years.

Why did political Presbyterians fear the army?

They feared the growing political influence of the New Model Army and its more radical religious and constitutional ideas. This created increasing conflict between Parliament and the army.

Who were the Levellers?

The Levellers were a radical political movement that developed during the Civil War period. They supported religious freedom, wider political participation, and significant constitutional reform.

What were the Agitators?

Agitators were elected representatives of soldiers in the New Model Army. They demanded payment of army arrears and became involved in wider political debates.

How did the army gain control of Charles?

In June 1647 George Joyce seized Charles and brought him under army control. This increased the army's political influence and weakened Parliament's ability to control events.

What were the Heads of Proposals?

The Heads of Proposals were army proposals from August 1647 calling for regular Parliaments, limits on military control, religious toleration, and wider voting rights. They offered a possible constitutional settlement with the king.

What were the Putney Debates?

The Putney Debates of October 1647 discussed political representation and voting rights. Rainsborough argued for broader voting rights, while Ireton and Cromwell supported qualifications linked to property.

Why did Charles escape in November 1647?

Charles escaped from captivity and reached Carisbrooke, where he continued negotiating. His secret agreement with the Scots helped trigger the Second Civil War.

What was the Second Civil War?

The Second Civil War began in 1648 when Scottish forces supported Charles. Cromwell's forces defeated the Scottish army, removing the immediate military threat.

What was Pride's Purge?

In December 1648 Colonel Pride removed 186 MPs and arrested 45 others. The remaining MPs formed the Rump Parliament, which proceeded against Charles.

What was the Rump Parliament?

The Rump was the reduced Parliament left after Pride's Purge, containing about 240 MPs. It became the main legislative authority after the execution of Charles I.

When was Charles I executed?

Charles was found guilty on 27 January 1649 and executed on 30 January 1649. His execution ended the monarchy temporarily and led to the establishment of a republic.

What happened to the monarchy and House of Lords in 1649?

The monarchy and House of Lords were abolished in March 1649. England was reorganised as a Commonwealth with a one-chamber Parliament.

What was the Commonwealth?

The Commonwealth was the republic established after Charles I's execution. It was governed without a monarch and depended heavily on the army for its survival.

Why did Cromwell become commander in 1650?

Charles II had been declared king by Scotland, creating a new military threat. Fairfax refused to lead the campaign, so Cromwell became commander in June 1650.

Why did the Rump Parliament fail?

The Rump was a minority regime that depended on the army and struggled to gain wider acceptance. Legal reform was slow, the gentry often refused to cooperate, and taxation placed a heavy burden on society.

Why did Cromwell dissolve the Rump in 1653?

Cromwell dissolved the Rump in April 1653 because MPs were planning a bill that would allow them to remain in Parliament without fresh elections. The army therefore intervened to end the Rump.

What was the Barebones Parliament?

The Barebones Parliament was a nominated assembly of about 140 members that met from July to December 1653. It attempted reforms involving debtors, lunatics, civil marriage, and war.

Why was it called the Barebones Parliament?

It was nicknamed after Praise-God Barbon, one of its members. The assembly included religious radicals and other reformers.

What was the Instrument of Government?

The Instrument of Government was the 1653 constitution establishing the Protectorate. It created a Lord Protector, a 21-member Council of State, and a single-chamber Parliament.

What was the First Protectorate Parliament?

The First Protectorate Parliament met from 1654–55 and contained 460 members. Members were elected every three years and had to meet a £200 property qualification.

What religious policies existed under Cromwell?

The Protectorate maintained a state Church while allowing considerable religious worship, except for Catholics and bishops. Cromwell also supported attempts to reform the clergy.

What were the major-generals?

After Penruddock's rising in 1655, Cromwell divided England into 11 districts controlled by major-generals. They were responsible for security, local government, and the "reformation of manners."

Why were the major-generals unpopular?

They were seen as military outsiders interfering in local government. Their attempts to enforce moral reform also created resentment.

What was the Humble Petition and Advice?

The 1657 Humble Petition and Advice offered Cromwell the crown, a second chamber, and hereditary succession. It also proposed greater parliamentary control over the army and regular elections.

Why did Cromwell refuse the crown?

Cromwell refused the crown because of opposition from the army and concerns about abandoning the principles of the godly reformation. He remained Lord Protector instead.

What happened after Cromwell died?

Cromwell died in September 1658 and was succeeded by his son Richard. Richard lacked his father's authority and was forced to resign by army officers in 1659.

Who was George Monck?

George Monck was a military commander who marched into London in January 1660. He helped restore a free Parliament and paved the way for the return of Charles II.

What was the Declaration of Breda?

The Declaration of Breda was issued by Charles II on 4 April 1660. It promised harmony, amnesty except for regicides, settlement with Parliament, payment of army arrears, and religious toleration.

When did Charles II return to England?

Charles landed at Dover on 25 May 1660. His return marked the Restoration of the monarchy.

What was restored in 1660?

The monarchy, House of Lords, Church of England, and bishops were restored. The Restoration also created a new settlement for royal finances and relations with Parliament.

What happened to Prerogative Courts and Ship Money after 1660?

Prerogative Courts were abolished and Ship Money disappeared. These changes reflected the rejection of some of the institutions associated with Charles I's personal rule.

How much regular income did Charles II receive?

The restored monarchy had about £1.2 million in regular income from customs and excise. However, Charles still depended on Parliament for additional financial resources.

What was the Cavalier Parliament?

The Cavalier Parliament was a strongly royalist Parliament elected in 1661. It remained in existence until 1679 and generally supported Charles's authority.

What was the Corporation Act?

The Corporation Act required people holding office in corporations to conform to the established Church. It formed part of the wider religious restrictions introduced after the Restoration.

What was the Act of Uniformity?

The 1662 Act required conformity to the Church of England. Around 1,800 Puritan ministers were ejected from their positions as a result.

What was the Clarendon Code?

The Clarendon Code was a series of laws enforcing religious conformity and restricting nonconformists. It included measures such as the Corporation Act, Act of Uniformity, Quaker Act, and Conventicle Act.

What was the Conventicle Act?

The Conventicle Act of 1664 restricted nonconformist religious meetings. It was part of the wider effort to establish religious uniformity under the restored Church.

What happened to Puritanism after the Restoration?

Puritanism became a minority opposition movement because of the restrictions placed on nonconformists. These policies contributed to continuing religious divisions.

Why did tensions remain after the Restoration?

Charles II claimed divine-right authority but remained dependent on Parliament for money. Religious divisions and suspicion of Catholic influence continued to create conflict.

What were the Great Plague and Great Fire?

The Great Plague struck London in 1665 and the Great Fire occurred in 1666. Both events added to the difficulties faced by Charles's government during the Second Anglo-Dutch War.

What was the Treaty of Dover?

The secret Treaty of Dover in 1670 involved cooperation against the Dutch and included a French subsidy to Charles. It also contained a commitment concerning Charles's conversion to Catholicism.

What was the Declaration of Indulgence of 1672?

It attempted to suspend laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters by using the king's dispensing powers. Parliament opposed the measure because it challenged the established constitutional role of law.

What was the Test Act of 1673?

The Test Act required officeholders to take measures excluding Catholics from public office. It forced Catholic figures such as Clifford to resign and contributed to James's resignation as Admiral.

Who was Danby?

Danby was a Protestant and Anglican minister who became a leading royal adviser from 1673. He supported a pro-Dutch policy and arranged the marriage of Mary and William in 1677.

What was the Popish Plot?

In 1678 Titus Oates claimed that Catholics were planning to assassinate Charles II. The allegations caused widespread political panic, and 35 Catholics had been tried and executed by 1680.