Research Methods - Continuity and Change

Primary Research: Definition & Examples

Original data collected directly by the researcher themself; examples include Surveys, Focus Groups, Interviews, and Observations.

Secondary Research: Definition & Examples

Data collected by someone else that is interpreted and synthesised; examples include government agencies, academics, organisations, and databases.

Primary Research: Key Benefits

Specific to the researcher's needs; researcher is able to control the quality.

Secondary Research: Key Benefits

Usually more accessible, quick, and cheap.

Primary Research: Disadvantages

Time-consuming; more expensive; smaller sample sizes

Quantitative Research: Nature and Characteristics

Researchers collect data that can be measured or counted, producing a statistical report focusing on what and how many.

• Uses a large and randomly selected sample representing the population of interest with structured data collection (close-ended or rating scale questions).

• Quantities and trends are identified and comparisons made, with findings quantified in numerical data, tables, graphs, and diagrams.

• The researcher is not necessarily known to participants and participant characteristics can be hidden.

Qualitative Research: Nature and Characteristics

Researcher aims to gather an in-depth understanding of an issue through open-ended questioning, non-statistical research techniques, or value-based observations focusing on why and how.

• Uses a usually small, non-randomly selected sample.

• Participant characteristics may be known to the researcher.

• Features a narrative report with a conceptual description of behaviour, values, attitudes, and beliefs, containing direct quotations from participants,

• relying heavily on the researcher's interpretative skills to understand complexities, and invaluable for exploring subjective experiences.

Questionnaire: Description

Written set of questions given to participants.

Questionnaire: When is it most useful?

Both quantitative and qualitative data (statistics plus opinions/explanations via open-ended questions); scale is often meso or macro (large groups, communities, institutions); best for identifying patterns/trends and when face-to-face methods are impractical.

Questionnaire: Advantages

Can reach large, geographically diverse samples improving reliability; option to do fully anonymously; flexible format (paper, online); cost-effective and time-efficient; reduces researcher bias (not influenced by their presence).

Questionnaire: Disadvantages

Cannot observe non-verbal cues; surface-level/superficial responses; self-report bias (exaggeration, socially desirable answers); difficult to communicate complex personal experiences in detail; misunderstand questions without the ability to clarify.

Questionnaire: Ethical Considerations

Informed consent (participants must know what the questionnaire is about before responding); clear purpose (explain how data will be used and why collected); guarantee confidentiality/anonymity (responses cannot be linked to individuals); sensitive questions (worded carefully to avoid harm or discomfort); participation must be voluntary (no coercion).

Interview: Description

Where a researcher asks participants direct questions.

Interview: When is it most useful?

Primarily qualitative data; scale is often micro (individuals) or meso (community groups/organisations).

Interview: Advantages

Can be structured or unstructured (fixed/standardised questions in a set order or in a conversational style led by participant responses); can provide rich, detailed accounts of experiences and opinions; allows participants to explain reasoning or context; allows for observation of non-verbal communication.

Interview: Disadvantages

Time-consuming to conduct and transcribe (even with tech); risk of interviewer bias (researcher's tone, wording, or body language may influence responses); may give socially desirable answers to please interviewer; expensive if interviewing larger amounts due to travel costs.

Interview: Ethical Considerations

Informed consent (purpose, use, and right to withdraw); confidentiality (protect personal info and stories, anonymise transcripts); voluntary participation (ensure no pressure to answer uncomfortable questions); power dynamics (interviewer must be aware of authority, avoid leading or pressuring responses).

Observation & Participant Observation: Description

Researcher watches, listens to, and records behaviour or interactions in a natural or controlled setting.

• Non-participant observation means the researcher does not interact and only observes

• while participant observation means the researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

Observation & Participant Observation: When is it most useful?

Mostly qualitative (descriptions, patterns of behavior), can be quantitative if tallying; scale is micro or meso (families, classrooms, workplaces), less common macro; best for studying natural behaviours, group dynamics, and non-verbal communication.

Observation & Participant Observation: Advantages

Avoids self-reporting; provides a less disruptive way to collect data; reduces risk of influencing participant behaviour.

Observation & Participant Observation: Disadvantages

Observer effect (people may change behaviour if they know they are being watched); subjectivity (researcher interpretations may bias data); difficult to record everything; time-consuming and often requires multiple sessions.

Observation & Participant Observation: Ethical Considerations

Informed consent (all participants should know they are being observed); voluntary participation (people must be free to opt out if uncomfortable); confidentiality (protect identities); covert observation raises serious ethical issues.

Content Analysis or Statistical: Description

Secondary research analysing existing works/numerical data such as texts, documents, speeches, advertisements, and films. Involves categorising content.

Content Analysis or Statistical: When is it most useful?

Both quantitative (measuring how often something appears) and qualitative (interpreting); scale can be micro, meso, or macro depending on scope; best for studying changes over time, values, and representation of groups.

Content Analysis or Statistical: Advantages

Identify patterns/trends; non-intrusive (does not influence people directly); can handle large amounts of data; uses existing material with no need to recruit participants.

Content Analysis or Statistical: Disadvantages

Risk of researcher bias (subjective interpretation of meaning); time-consuming; can be misleading if sample is biased.

Content Analysis or Statistical: Ethical Considerations

If using private content, must gain informed consent; respect intellectual property and copyright when reproducing texts or images; must be culturally sensitive when interpreting representations of minority groups.

Focus Group: Description

Small group discussion led by a facilitator.

Focus Group: When is it most useful?

Primarily qualitative; scale is micro or meso; best for studying group dynamics, attitudes, or norms.

Focus Group: Advantages

Encourages open discussion where participants may share more freely in a group setting; broader range of opinions; allows researcher to observe group dynamics; efficient by collecting multiple perspectives at once.

Focus Group: Disadvantages

Individuals may conform to dominant voices instead of giving true opinions or out of fear of judgement; dominant participants can overshadow quieter ones leading to unequal representation; some topics like sensitive or personal issues may be unsuitable for group discussion.

Focus Group: Ethical Considerations

Informed consent (participants must know discussion is for research); voluntary participation (no pressure to contribute if uncomfortable); confidentiality is challenging since participants hear each other's responses, requiring the researcher to stress respect and privacy; anonymity cannot be fully guaranteed since group members know each other's contributions; safe environment (facilitator must prevent intimidation or harm); cultural sensitivity (group composition including gender, age, and background must be considered to ensure comfort and inclusivity).

Primary Research: Disadvantages

can be not specific or suitable enough for the researcher's needs; may be outdated or biased