AP Psychology Unit XII Vocab Terms

Psychological Disorder

A syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior

Deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional

When a person has a psychological disorder, a person's thoughts, feelings, and actions are (3 categories):
*the 3 D's*

Deviant Behavior

A person who breaks societal or group norms; DIFFERENT FROM THE NORM

Distressful Behavior

Behavior that prevents a person from thinking clearly or making rational decisions due to feelings of discomfort and suffering
Question to consider: are the thoughts, feelings, or actions that an individual experiences stressful to themselves or others?
^Either can check this box - distress themselves OR others

Dysfunctional Behavior

This thought, feeling, behavior, or difference a person is experiencing is fundamentally and NEGATIVELY impacting their own or others lives

Mr. Lindsay example of 3 components of a psychological disorder

Ex: Mr. Lindsay has OCD and how it checks the three components of a psychological disorder
Deviant - Mr. Lindsay wanting to vacuum every single day as soon as he gets from school (different from norm)
Distressful - feeling stressed over vacuuming and not feeling at peace until he has vacuumed each day (feeling distressed)
Dysfunctional - rationally understands the floor is fine, but still feels the compulsion to vacuum and cannot rest until the compulsion has been addressed for cleanliness; impacts his wife and child

Over time, the definition of disordered thoughts, feelings, and actions has changed with social norms
Ex 1: The APA & the classification of homosexuality as a mental illness (1952- December 9, 1973)
Ex 2: ADHD controversy of whether it is real or not real (Question to consider: When does normal childlike behavior become a psychological disorder?)

How has the definition of a psychological disorder changed over time?

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of 3 key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

ADHD Controversy

Critics argue that normal rambunctiousness is too often diagnosed as a psychiatric disorder (ADHD is "not real")
Question to consider: When does normal childlike behavior become a psychological disorder?

- Leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy (as critics describe) - can lead to them unconsciously accepting this trait and just simply exhibiting the trait (can use as a handy excuse... "it's not my fault, I have ADHD!")
- People taking the medications (Adderall - stimulant) prescribed to aid ADHD, can impair quality of life and life expectancy

What are the consequences of the ADHD diagnosis?

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

An expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

The medical model and biopsychosocial approach

What 2 concepts are highly applicable to psychologist's understanding of psychological disorders?

Medical Model

(19th century) The concept that diseases, or psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured, often through hospital treatment

SIMPLY how when we look at mental disorders, we look at them as if they are illnesses that can be treated - in stark contrast to previous centuries when it would lead to being killed, being "witches", or inferior

"Moral Treatment" Movement

Instituting MORE HUMANE treatment of people with mental illness; recognition that those with psychological disorders are people

Philippe Pinel (18th-19th centuries) held balls for individuals with psychological disorders to afford them a time of recreation for a better quality of life, but in order to pay for it, he "bribed" richer townspeople by giving them tickets to watch these individuals dance for their amusement

Who is associated with the "moral treatment" movement and how so?

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
(20th-21st centuries)

Connection of biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders

This approach allows researchers to explain universal disorders (ex. depression & schizophrenia) and culturally-specific disorders (ex. eating disorders & amok (Malaysia))

Universal disorders

Disorders that are INTERNATIONAL with the SAME symptoms and exhibition around the world
i.e. depression, schizophrenia

Culturally-specific disorders

Disorders that are prevalent or identifiable in a specified area or culture
i.e. "Thin ideal" → EDs, Amok (only in Malaysia)

Amok

In a frenzied or uncontrolled state (ONLY IDENTIFIABLE TO MALAYSIA)
Ex. Mr. Lindsay beating Tony to death because he got a call his house caught on fire

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR)

(MOST COMMON) System for describing disorders and estimating how often they occur; created by the American Psychiatric Association (APA)

International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)

System for describing disorders and estimating how often they occur; created by The World Health Organization

There are items in the DSM that are NOT in the ICD, yet international ICD classifications are commonly found throughout the globe

How do the DSM-5-TR and ICD-11 differ?

The number edition of the publication (i.e. 5 \= 5th edition)

What do the numbers represent in the DSM-5-TR and ICD-11?

They use "diagnostic and criteria codes" to guide medical diagnoses and define who is eligible for treatments, including medication.

The manual does NOT discuss the causes (etiology) or treatments of the various disorders - SIMPLY IDENTIFIES WHAT IS WRONG WITH YOU

What do the DSM-5-TR and ICD-11 do?

Causes (etiology) or treatments are nuanced, and many don't have a universal application

Why don't the DSM-5-TR, nor the ICD-11, discuss etiology?

Etiology

Causes of various disorders

Critics argue the DSM-5 casts too wide a net and brings "almost any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry"
There's an amazing (yet concerning) amount of disorders included in the DSM; i.e. caffeine addiction

What do critics of DSM-5 argue?

Psychological labels are "at best arbitrary, and at worst value judgements masquerading as science"
Once a person is labeled, we view them differently (labels create preconceptions that guide our perceptions and interpretations)

What do the critics of general psychological labels argue?

Rosenhan Study (1978)

Study in which David Rosenhan and a number of associates sought admission to a number of mental hospitals by claiming to "hear voices"
Immediately upon claiming to hear voices, were admitted to a mental hospital, given powerful pills while still acting sane with regard to claiming to hear voices, later discharged with schizophrenia in remission

A. Should a psychological diagnosis be carried for life? (even if treatment has worked)
B. To what extent are disorders the product of a particular environment?
C. If the imposters could go undetected days/weeks, what is the level of institutional care at mental hospitals? (**limited socialization with patients and workers)

What issues were raised by the Rosenhan Study?

Ellen Langer

Conducted a study in which preconceptions influenced interviewers in judgement of interviewees (2 categories: "normal," and psychiatric patients labels)

Outcome: Labeling an interviewee came with consequences - leads to bias and preconceptions that influence perception of others

Stewart Page

Called 180 people into Toronto who advertised "furnished rooms for rent" → studied the power of labels to stigmatize people in others eyes
If he mentioned that he was just released from a mental hospital (or prison... or recently diagnosed with AIDS), the room was miraculously no longer available

Although labels may result in a person receiving necessary treatment/assistance, they may result in more damage and a self-fulfilling prophecy (when they do not receive that treatment/assistance and are denied necessary aspects of life...i.e. Housing, jobs)

What is the result of associating labels with people?

Anxiety Disorders

Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person in continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal with no knowledge of why

ALWAYS STRESSED/ANXIOUS - from the time you wake up to the time you go to sleep No specific stimulus you can identify, so you will be prescribed depressants that lessen stimulation of fear+anxiety

Panic disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of panic attacks
Generally have a specific cause of event that generates a panic attack; fear of panic attacks CAN CAUSE panic attacks
i.e. Iron Man in Iron Man III experiencing panic attacks after Battle of New York 2012 when Chitauri invaded Earth

Panic attacks

Intense dread and emotion in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack

Phobias

An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation

Major examples: claustrophobia, arachnophobia, acrophobia, agoraphobia, social phobia

Claustrophobia

Fear of enclosed or narrow spaces

Arachnophobia

Fear of spiders

Acrophobia

Fear of heights

Agoraphobia

Fear of open, public spaces

Social Phobia (aka Social Anxiety Disorder)

Fear of a situation in which one could embarrass oneself in public

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

A disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy, anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
NOTE: PTSD IS NOT COMMON AS SOCIETY DECEIVES US TO BELIEVE

Survivor Resiliency

A term used for those who have gone through a traumatic experience, but do NOT develop PTSD; instead, they recover after severe stress

Posttraumatic Growth

Positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises; "this too shall pass"; instead of experiencing traumatic stress, re-evaluate values in life and may change priorities

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Ex: "Little Albert" to condition fear of rats

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Classical and operant conditioning may result in acquisition of an anxiety disorder as the mind makes associations between different stimuli (classical) or between actions & consequences (operant)

What is the learning perspective when it comes to understanding anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD?

Stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only SIMILAR to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
Ex: Being attacked by a fierce pit bull → fear of all dogs

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Helps maintain phobias & compulsions as people avoid anxiety-inducing situations & stimuli (reinforced phobic behavior results in decreased arousal)

Observational Learning (aka Social Learning)

Learning by observing others
Ex. connection to fear - First time taking a test and seeing people around you freaking out, activate mirror neurons and begin feeling the same way

Hypervigilant cognitive activity

May result in the acquisition of an anxiety disorder as people cannot switch off intrusive thoughts, perceived loss of control, and a sense of helplessness
Vigilant \= scan environment around them and assess threats ("head on a swivel")
Typically caused by abuse and exhibited by those who have been attacked or bullied physically, mentally, or sexually - survival instinct

Natural selection

\____________ \__________________ may play a role in the acquisition of anxiety disorders as humans seem biologically prepared to fear threats faced by our ancestors

Genes

\___________ may play a role in the acquisition of anxiety disorders by predisposing a person to have a sensitive, high-strung temperament

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal for happiness and good feeling; undersupply linked to depression.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory + alertness

Some researchers believe that an undersupply of serotonin and oversupply of glutamate are associated with anxiety disorders

How are serotonin and glutamate supplies related to anxiety disorders?

Anxiety disorders are manifested biologically as an overarousal of brain areas involved in impulse control and habitual behaviors
Fear-learning experiences that traumatize the brain can also create fear circuits within the amygdala (takes very little to stimulate the amygdala)

How are brain areas and the amygdala specifically related to anxiety disorders?

Mood disorders (aka affective disorder)

Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes

Affect

A term referring to emotion or mood.

major depressive disorder

What is the "common cold" of psychological disorders?

Major depressive disorder (aka unipolar depression)

A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, 2 or more weeks with 5 or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure
The "common cold" of psychological disorders - most pervasive and common worldwide

Symptoms of major depressive disorder (unipolar depression)

a. Significant weight loss or gain when not dieting, or significant decrease or increase in appetite
b. Insomnia or sleeping too much
c. Physical agitation ("thin skin" - get hurt too easily to where its deviant/distressful) or lethargy ("zombie" - constantly zoning out or simply going through the motions without consciously being there)
d. Fatigue or loss of energy
e. Feeling worthless, or excessive or inappropriate guilt
f. Problems in thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
g. Recurrent thoughts of death and suicide

Persistent Depressive Disorder (aka Dysthymia)

A mood disorder in which a person experiences a mildly depressed mood more often than not for at least 2 years

Symptoms of persistent depressive disorder (aka dysthymia)

At least 2 of the following symptoms must be displayed:
a. Problems regulating appetite
b. Problems regulating sleep (is your circadian rhythm off)
c. Low energy
d. Low self-esteem
e. Difficulty concentrating and making decisions
f. Feelings of hopelessness (for 2 years+)

Mania

A mood disorder in which a person experiences a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state, marked by periods of great excitement or euphoria, delusions, and overactivity

NOT HEALTHY - must have the ability to experience highs and lows and return to "normal" state, being highly optimistic all the time leads to delusions of grandeur, rapid talking and excitement

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania (formerly called manic-depressive disorder); switches between states can be rapid or extended over time (states are long)
Ex: Kurt Cobain in NIRIVANA had bipolar disorder

Lithium is typically used to treat bipolar disorder; keeps you in the "middle ground" by preventing extremes of experienced emotions and states

What is typically used to treat bipolar disorder?

Linkage Analysis (relevance to mood disorders)

Analyzing genome for related individuals for linked disorders + any of those differences in siblings will be recorded
**human genome project

Association Studies (relevance to mood disorders)

All people diagnosed with a disorder and finding similar patterns within their genetics to lessen that pattern in future generations

fMRI (functional MRI)

A functional neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.

left, left

INCREASED activity in the \_____ frontal lobe correlates with positive emotions; DECREASED activity in the \_____ frontal lobe correlates with negative emotions

Norepinephrine (adrenaline)

Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal; associated with "fight or flight"

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Found in fish, nuts and seeds, and avocados (countries that mainly consume fish have less numbers of depression)
"Oil" for the brain just like oil for the car

Linked to depression
- can't experience as much energy
- Omega-3 fatty acid is like "oil" for the brain (just as you need oil for a car engine); can reason through the hardships in life, and won't be manic because understand appropriateness of it in each situation

What results with a LIMITED release of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine & serotonin, and a LACK of omega-3 fatty acid?

Social-Cognitive Perspective

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context; THE ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS THE WAY YOU THINK

The Cognitive Triad

3 forms of negative thinking: 1) themselves, 2) their world, and 3) their futures that is theorized to lead people to feel depressed
(also can be described as negativity about self, situation, and future)

Aaron Beck

Who came up with the cognitive triad?

Negative Explanatory Style

One's habitual way of explaining life events that attributes failure to stable, global, and internal causes; SEEING THE BAD IN EVERYTHING

Example of stable negative explanatory style

"It's going to last forever"

Example of global negative explanatory style

"It's going to affect everything I do"

Example of internal negative explanatory style

"It's all my fault"

Learned helplessness

The tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past that has led to learning hopelessness and passive resignation

Martin Seligman's experiment

An experiment that discovered "learned helplessness" - One group of dogs could terminate electrical shock by pressing button while the other group had no way to stop the shocks. Then, both groups were put into situations where they could easily stop the shocks by moving away from the platform. Dogs that could stop shock in first phase learned to move to safe area and the other group just dealt with the shocks and "gave up".

Schizophrenia

A psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and thoughts, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

Delusions

False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders (SENSICAL TO THOSE WHO EXPERIENCE IT!)
Ex: Believing the CIA is tracking you and put tracking chips in your teeth

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
Ex: Feeling like a spider is on you
Ex: Hearing voices and having visions (VERY RARE!)

Disorganized speech/thoughts

Includes creating artificial words and jumbling words and phrases together ("WORD SALAD")

Diminished and/or inappropriate emotional expression

Reactions and emotional expressment that is inappropriate for certain situations
Ex: Laughing at a funeral

Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia

The presence of inappropriate behaviors - more disruptive form of schizophrenia; includes:
- Hallucinations
- Disorganized thoughts
- Inappropriate laughter or rage
Additional symptoms:
- Neologisms
- Clang associations

Neologisms

Creation of made-up words (ONLY logical to the individual who uses them)

Clang associations

The stringing together of nonsense words that rhyme; (i.e. "sing-song" speaking)

Acute Schizophrenia

A form of schizophrenia in which all symptoms are IMMEDIATELY demonstrated; can be in response to a traumatic effect that prompts a quick turnaround and exhibition of psychological disorder

Chronic Schizophrenia

A form of schizophrenia in which symptoms GRADUALLY are exhibited over time; **more problematic because recovery is more difficult and help is obtained much later

Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

The absence of appropriate behaviors \= LACK OF LIFE; includes symptoms of:
- Toneless voices
- Expressionless faces
- Rigid bodies
Additional symptoms:
- Flat affect
- Wavy flexibility

Flat affect

A lack of emotional responsiveness; "catatonia" - being catatonic, or inability to move

Catatonia

State of immobility and unresponsiveness lasting for long periods of time