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What is the purpose of cellular respiration?
produce ATP
Where does cellular respiration occur?
mitochondria
What is glycolysis?
the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.
Where does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm
What are the products of glycolysis?
2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
what is fermintation
An energy-releasing process that breaks down pyruvates that does not require oxygen.
where does fermentation occur
cytoplasm
when does fermentation occur
When there is no oxygen
what are the products of fermentation
NAD+, alcohol, carbon dioxide & lactic acid
what is the prep reaction
pyruvic acid is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2
Where does the prep reaction occur?
matrix of mitochondria
what are the products of the prep reaction
acetyl-CoA and carbon dioxide
what is the citric acid cycle
series of redox reactions that result in the breaking down of glucose to CO2
what is the citric acid cycle also known as
Krebs cycle
where does the citric acid cycle take place
matrix of mitochondria
what are the products of the citric acid cycle
4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP
what is the electron transport chain
a series of proteins in the inner membrane of mitochondria
where does the electron transport chain occur
inner membrane of mitochondria
what are the products of the electron transport chain
NAD+, FAD, water, and ATP
what are the steps of the cell cycle
G1, S, G2, Mitosis
What happens in the G1 stage of the cell cycle?
Cell increases in Size
What happens in the S stage of the cell cycle?
The cell copies its DNA, creating identical pairs of DNA molecules called sister chromatids. This ensures that there is enough DNA to split between daughter cells.
What happens in the G2 stage of the cell cycle?
The cell prepares to divide through rapid growth and protein synthesis. Microtubules also reorganize to form a spindle. Before proceeding to the next stage, cells must be checked at the G2 checkpoint for DNA damage. If damage is found, the tumor protein p53 can either repair it or trigger apoptosis.
What is the order of mitosis?
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
when does the cell go through the cell cycle
When it reproduces
why do the cell go through the cell cycle\
to accurately duplicate the cell's DNA and then divide the copies equally between the two genetically identical new daughter cells
what do chromosomes look like in eukaryotes
linear (straight line)
what are the steps of mitosis
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
what are the results of mitosis
2 identical daughter cells
what is cytokinesis
the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.
when does cytokinesis happen
after telophase
what is cloning
Cloning is a type of asexual reproduction. It produces cells that are genetically identical to an original cell.
what are the types of cloning
gene cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning.
what is cancer
the disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body.
how is the cell cycle involved in cancer
A cancer cell will divide uncontrollably due to the mutation of the DNA that produces a cell cycle controlling protein
what are the checkpoints in the cell cycle
g1/S checkpoint.
g2/M checkpoint.
Spindle checkpoint.
why are the checkpoints in the cell cycle important
ensure that each phase of the cell cycle occurs in order and without errors before the next phase
what is meiosis
a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
what is meiosis used for
to produce gametes, or sex cells, in multicellular plants and animals
why is meiosis important
Meiosis is important because it results in genetic variation amongst gametes.
What is chromatin?
Chromatin is a long chain of DNA.
What are chromosomes?
Chromosomes are rolled up DNA when it is going through cell division.
What are chromatids?
Chromatids are two identical halves of a replicated chromosome.
what are the steps of meiosis
Interphase, Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1 and cytokinesis, Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, Telophase 2 and cytokinesis
what is created at the end of meiosis
4 unique haploid daughter cells
how is meiosis different from mitosis
Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells.
What is spermatogenesis?
production of sperm
what is oogenesis
Production of an ovum
What is an ovum
The ovum is known as an egg cell and is defined as the cell produced by the female reproductive system when it undergoes meiosis to produce egg cells
what is created in spermatogenesis
Sperm
what is created in oogenesis
an egg/ovum
who was gregor mendel
Gregor Mendel was a botanist, teacher, and Augustinian prelate, the first person to lay the mathematical foundation of the science of genetics, in what came to be called Mendelism.
what did Gregor Mendel work with
Pea plants
what is the law of indepedent assortment
alleles of different genes are sorted into gametes independently of each other during meiosis
what is the law of segregation
when an organism produces gametes (sperm or egg cells), each gamete will receive only one of the two gene copies, or alleles, that the parent organism has
what is a genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
what is a phenotype
physical characteristics of an organism
what is a dominant allele
a version of a gene that overrules another version, called a recessive allele, to produce a specific trait
how is a dominant allelle represented
By a capital letter
what are recessive alleles
a version of a gene, or allele, that doesn't produce a trait when only one copy is present, two copies of the version of the allele must be present in order for the recessive trait to be visible
how are recessive alleles represented
lowercase letters
what is codominance
when both alleles contribute to the phenotype
what is incomplete dominance
when one allele is not completely dominant over the other
what scientists were involved in the discovery of dna
Griffith, Avery, Hershey, Chase, Chargaff, Franklin, Watson, Crick
what did grifith contribute to the discovery of dna
discovered the "transforming principle" through a series of experiments with bacteria and bacteriophages
what did avery contribute to the discovery of dna
showed that DNA was the "transforming principle
what did hershey and chase contribute to the discovery of dna
helped confirm DNA as the genetic material
what did chargaff contribute to the discovery of dna
determining base pairing in DNA by observing the amount of the four nitrogenous bases found in different samples of DNA, made Chargaff's rules, and developed a new paper chromatography method
what did franklin contribute to the discovery of dna
X-ray diffraction. Her creation of the famous Photo 51 demonstrated the double-helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid: the molecule containing the genetic instructions for the development of all living organisms.
what did watson and crick contribute to the discovery of dna
the first scientists to formulate an accurate description of this molecule's complex, double-helical structure
what is the base pairing tjhat chargarff discover
In 1950, Erwin Chargaff discovered that DNA in all organisms has equal ratios of adenine (A) to thymine (T) and guanine (G) to cytosine (C). This discovery is known as Chargaff's rule, or the base pair rule.
if a strand of dna has 15% G, what percentage will there be of A
35%
what is the structure of dna
-composed of polynucleotides -- have a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogen containing bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine)
-Has a doubled helix that is formed by hydrogen bonds between polynucleotides
-Densely compacted into chromosomes to fit into nucleus
what is the structure of rna
-has polynucleotides -- have a phosphate group, ribose sugar and nitrogen containing bases (adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine)
-single stranded
-moves out of nucleus to perform protein synthesis
what enzymes are involved in dna replication
Helicase and DNA polymerase
what order are the enzymes in during dna replication
Helicase, Primase, DNA polymerase III, Exonuclease, DNA polymerase I, ligase
what does helicase do
unwinds the double helix
what does primase do
makes RNA primer on which DNA poly III can initiate replication
what does dna polymerase III do
It adds on new nucleotides to create the complementary strand of DNA, with hydrogen bonds between the bases, i.e. adds deoxynucleoside triphosphates to the 3' end.
what does exonuclease do
strips away RNA primer, which DNA polymerase replaces with DNA nucleotides
what does dna polymerase I do
removes the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA
What does DNA ligase do?
seals fragments forming 2 new DNA molecules
how is prokaryotic dna different from eukaryotic dna
DNA in prokaryotes is double-stranded and circular. Eukaryotic DNA, on the other hand, is double-stranded and linear.
what are telomeres
DNA at the tips of chromosomes
how are telomeres important
essential for the stability of eukaryotic genomes and the longevity of cellular information
how are dna and rna similar
Both contain purine and pyrimidine bases, have a sugar phosphate backbone, and use genetic code
how are dna and rna different
DNA: sugar deoxyribose and thymine
RNA: sugar ribose and uracil
what are introns
noncoding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into a protein
what happens in initiation
RNA polymerase (RNApol) binds DNA at the gene's promoter
the DNA helix unwinds
RNA synthase begins
what happens in elongation
Successive cycles of aminoacylated tRNA binding and peptide bond formation until ribosome reaches stop codon.
what happens in termination
Translation stops at stop codon, mRNA and protein dissociate, ribosomal subunits are recycled.
what is transcription
The process of making RNA from DNA
what are the steps of transcription
initiation, elongation, and termination
what are exons
regions of DNA that are transcribed to RNA and retained after introns are spliced out
what is rna splicing
RNA splicing: sequences called introns are cut out, sequences called exons are kept and and spliced (joined) together.
what enzymes are involved in rna splicing in gram negative bacteria
RNase II, RNase R and PNPase
what enzymes are involved in rna splicing in archaea
an endonuclease and a ligase
what enzymes are involved in rna splicing in eukaryotes
spliceosome:
tRNA splicing endonuclease (TSEN): Separates exons from introns
Ligase: Joins exons together
Small RNAs: Recognize marker sequences at the ends of introns and direct the spliceosome to remove them
what is translation
the decoding of an mRNA message into a protein
what are the steps of translation
initiation, elongation, and termination
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