2.1 -2.3 quiz

Bottom-up processing:

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information (sensation → brain)

Top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes , drawing on our experiences and expectations (brain → sensation)

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Proximity

group objects that are close together as being part of same group

Similarity

objects similar in appearance are perceived as being part of same group

Closure

like top-down processing, we fill gaps in if we can recognize it

Figure-ground

is the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the background). 

Linear Perspective

Point of convergence (vanishing point) seems farther away, creating depth

Interposition

One object partially covers another, making the one behind appear further away

Texture Gradient

Closer objects appear larger, more detailed, and less dense than those perceived far away

Relative Size

If two or more objects are similar, we perceive the smaller ones as being farther away

Relative Clarity

Objects that appear sharper and more detailed are perceived as closer and objects that a blurry are perceived as farther away

Color Constancy

Even if illumination changes, we perceive the color of familiar objects as relatively constant.

Brightness Constancy

Even if illumination changes, we perceive the brightness of familiar objects as relatively constant

Shape Constancy

Perceiving an object’s shape as relatively constant, even when the shape of its retinal image changes

size Constancy

Perceiving an object’s size as relatively constant, even when the size of its retinal image changes

Retinal disparity 

• Each eye views an object from a different angle.

• The greater the difference, the greater the distance.

Convergence

The brain combines the two unique retinal images to help us gauge distance from the object.

Stroboscopic Effect:

 a rapid series of slightly varying images perceived as moving images (flip book, “old” movies)

Phi Phenomenon:

illusion of movement created when two or more-lights next to each other blink on and off

Perceptual Adaptation

In the event your perception is altered for any reason, your brain will work to overcome this shift using previous memories so you can continue to function normally

Selective Attention

or focusing our conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

cocktail-party effect

refers to the ability to focus one's attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli (i.e., noise). 

inattentional blindness.

Failing to see visible objects when are attention is focused elsewhere

change blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment i

Cognition

refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. 

Forming concepts

• a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Forming prototypes

• a mental image or best example of a category

Schema

framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

When you encounter something new, you try to find a place for it in an existing schema (

accommodation

alter your schema to include the new information

algorithm

 methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem.

Representative Heuristic

• estimating the likelihood of events in reference to how closely they resemble a particular prototype

Representative Heuristic

• estimating the likelihood of events on how readily they come to mind

Framing

• the way an issue is presented or worded can impact how people respond

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Overconfidence

• the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

  • Thinking you don’t need to study

Fixation

• the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

  • Mental set: tendency to persist in using the same problem-solving strategy that have worked in the past → math problems, trying to use the same formula over and over again

  • Functional fixedness: the inability to recognize novel uses for an item and only see it for its most common purpose → I need to ship a fragile item but can only use items in this room. What could keep the item from breaking in the box?

Belief perseverance

• clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Sunk cost fallacy:

• a cognitive bias that makes you stay in a situation despite losing resources or benefits

Gambler’s fallacy:

•  cognitive bias that adheres to the ideas that if something hasn’t happened recently it soon will

alogrithm

• Systematic method of problem solving by trying every possible solution until the solution is found

• Cannot fail if a solution exists

Heuristics 

• Mental shortcuts

• Advantage:  Speed

Disadvantage:  Inaccuracy

representative

estimating the likelihood of events in reference to how closely they resemble a particular prototype

Availability Heuristic 

Making judgments based on information that is easily brought to mind

Creativity

is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. Though we can understand what creativity is, it is difficult to teach or measure. 

five components of creativity

• Expertise

• Imagination

• A venturesome personality

• Intrinsic motivation

• A creative environment

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions

convergent thinking

which narrows down the solutions to the single best option.