Contemporary Urban Environments

How do urban forms and processes affect the local climate?

Urban heat island effect= urban areas being warmer than the surrounding rural areas.

Urban heat island effect caused by following processes:

1. Combustion (transport, heating facilities, etc) releases heat

2. Combustion releases air pollution = cloud cover/ pollution dome (reflects outgoing heat back into city)

3. Deforestation = less evapotranspiration (runs down drains)

4. Construction = heat absorbed by surfaces during the day and released slowly at night (3-4 degrees hotter at night than 0.6 degrees during day)

London is 5°C warmer than surrounding rural areas

Mumbair is 5-7°C warmer than surrounding rural areas

UHI managed by: cool roof technology (white), green roads, green roofs, modern designs, urban greening

Urban microclimates

• more frequent and intense rainfall (despite less evaporation due to drains) = warm air holds moisture, rises, condenses)

• Fog and cloud = condensation nuclei from factories

• Less snow and ice (too warm)

• Winds affected: slower wind speed due to friction, turbulence (buildings cause vortices = spinning bodies of swirling air), canyon effect (gusts when channelled down streets)

• More frequent thunderstorms (warmer + rapid expansion of air)

• Poor air quality (hydroscopic pollution particles = water condenses around them = smog reduces sunshine)

New urban landscapes

• Town mixed centre developments: E.g plan to build Asda Mixed-Use Redevelopment of Park Royal in North West London (1500 homes (500 affordable), sustainable, public transport, big ASDA)

• Cultural and heritage quarters: regenerating industrial areas to have theaters, museums, galleries, improves perception of area. E.g. Jewellery quater in Birmingham.

• Fortress developments: high security for families, ££, e.g. US embassy, London

• Edge cities: increased car ownership led to cities near transport links. E.g. Croydon

Only in cities in developed countries - not MUMBAI!

Describe London’s waste

London produces 7 million tonnes of waste per year.

Sources:

• Industrial (manufacturing)

• Commercial (paper, card, food)

• Personal (private homes)

Management: incineration vs landfill

• Currently recycles 52% waste, but aim is to recycle 65% waste by 2030.

• Landfill space is running out by 2026, so plan is: no recyclable or biodegradable waste to go to landfill by 2026.

• Aim to incinerate 35% waste at Beddington. (Generates electricity for 55,000 homes)

What is a waste stream?

The flow of waste from its origin to its eventual disposal.

How do waste streams relate to economic characteristics, attitudes and lifestyles?

Waste streams vary due to these factors:

• Economic characteristics (HICs produce 2.1kg pp/day, LICs produce 0.6kg pp/day)

• Attitudes (improved health knowledge = single use, but improved environmental knowledge too)

• Lifestyles (urban dwellers produce more, processed foods produce more)

River restoration project: why did they do it?

Cheonggyecheon River Restoration project:

• Aims: to create ecological and recreational opportunities in city centre (moving from development focussed to QofL focussed)

• Attitudes of parties: transport experts worried, local businesses saw it as a threat so Seoul Metropolitan Authority provided support (parking, perks, etc)

• Activities: elevated freeway dismantled, cars discouraged, river spit into 3 zones (central historic, middle and final)

• Evaluation: popular for rest, 18.1 million tourists (2003-2008)

  Proved to be sustainable:

  1. Economically sustainable (investment double than in rest of city),

  2. Environmentally sustainable (2.5 degrees cooler, air quality improved.

  3. Socially sustainable (inclusive)

Describe London’s urban issues

Economic inequality:

• Kensington income = £130,000 but Newham’s income = £35,000

• Inner city areas are becoming more gentrified = forces poor out

Cultural diversity can lead to social segregation:

• 50% londoners not white British - unevenly distributed (60% ‘other’ in Brent, but 16% ‘other’ in Havering)

• Social segregation:

  • Hate crime (800 anti-muslim hate crimes committed July 2014-July 2015)

Strategies to reduce inequality:

1. London Living Wage (unfair cost of housing and living and childcare) (£9.75)

2. Skills training

3. Affordable housing (Sadiq Khan)

4. Police working against hate crime

Describe Mumbai’s urban issues

Economic inequality:

• high population density means ££ housing (people who cannot afford it live in slums = £2 per month, sorting waste = poor living conditions)

Cultural diversity:

Social segregation:

• Society split into horizontal divisions (religion, region, language) and vertical (caste, income, occupation)

• Indian Muslims split into muslim communities (10% less likely to have piped water, and 50% less likely to have education)

Strategies to reduce inequality:

1. Mumbai Monorail (10p per ride)

2. SPARC community toilet lock (25p per month - lighting reduces crime, hygiene reduces disease)

3. Hamara foundation (work for kids)

4. Plans to develop Dhavari into 1.1 million new homes (resident opposing the loss of community spirit)

Outline Mumbai’s waste

Only 70% waste collected: 20 % of this is processed, 50% goes to landfill = air, soil, water pollution

Strategies to reduce this:

1. Green communities Foundations (divert waste going into landfill - works with businesses)

2. Earth 5R (clean river Mithi that runs through Khurla slum - trains and educated slum dwellers)

4 processes that affect the populations of cities?

Summarise the causes of social segregation in urban areas. (3 marks)

• Social segregation: when distinct groups of people occupy different areas within an urban area (often related to income, wealth, education, race, age, or cultural factors such as religion)

• Differential access to housing market (wealthy can afford more desirable housing in nicer areas)

• Immigrants may experience discrimination in labour and housing markets, so are concentrated in areas of less desirable housing)

• Limited social and economic mobility makes it difficult to break free from established successive patterns from over the years.

Assess the extent to which incineration is a more sustainable approach to waste management than landfill (9 marks)

Intro: types of waste management and their environmental impacts: unregulated (damages ecosystems), recycling (reprocesses - uses less E tho), incineration (releases GHG), land fill (leaching but some HICs line and cap landfills), recovery (best because no eviro impacts), submergence (Somalia, kills marine life), trade (HICs pay countries to keep hazardous waste)

Sustainability of incineration and landfill can be compared:

• Environmental sustainability: Landfill can lead to leaching of chemical into groundwater flow, can be prevented by lining pit with clay and capping to prevent methane gas escaping. Incineration releases methane and other GHG, but reduces landfill space and fossil fuel usage.

• Economic sustainability: both create jobs, but incineration more economically demanding and beneficial as you can get money in return (produces energy instead of using other sources) - e.g. incineration center at Beddington provide E for 55,000 homes. LICs often cant afford incineration so landfill it (Mumbai = 50% waste to landfill which is double London’s landfill waste)

• Social sustainability: neither: landfill leaches chemicals into surrounding areas, but incineration causes air pollution. Waste provides social opportunity. Green Communities Foundations (they divert landfill) and Earth 5R clean river Mithi and provide jobs + education for slum dwellers.

‘Counter-urbanisation affects the human characteristics of place more than the physical characteristics of place.’ With reference to an urban area you have studied, how far do you agree with this statement?

Intro: define counter-urbanisation. Factors contributing to the character of place (exogenous and endogenous, and this is endogenous)

Counter-urbanisation affects human characteristics: assess the impact of counter-urbanisation on demographics, built environment (new buildings, changes to existing buildings such as St Mary’s Wharf in Guildford), social segregation and deprivation and leisure activities, economic characteristics (changes to house prices and businesses opportunities). E.g. Detroit and white flight.

Counter-urbanisation affects physical characteristics. Assess the impact of counter urbanisation on size of the settlement - the impact this has on the physical landscape: changes in drainage, ecosystem and wildlife habitats, geomorphology) E.g. London’s

In some urban areas, distinctively distinguishing between what is counter-urbanisation, further suburbanization or urban sprawl is difficult. E.g. Guildford population increasing by _______, not sure if it is London’s counter-urbanisation or Guildford’s own urban sprawl.

Conclusion. Counter-urbanisation has affected human characteristics the most. Will it continue in future?

With reference to contrasting urban areas, evaluate the relative success of strategies used to address issues associated with economic inequality. (20 marks)

Intro: what is economic inequality (unequal distribution of money amongst a population. Issues associated with it: political unrest, rise in crime + drugs + violence, health problems (malnourished people). Deprived areas in London (Newham - income is 35,000 compared to Kensington of 130,000)

Strategies to manage these issues:

1. Improve public transport (mumbai Monorial = 10p per ride, London’s Elizabeth line) will improve access to jobs and education. Very successful!!

2. Increase affordable housing (Sadiqu Khan in London) to improve quality of life. Not very successful - not cheap enough

3. Increasing minimum wages (London Living wage to £9.75 not £8.45) and (Hamara foundation for schoolkids to work, Mumbai) to reduce segregation of wealthy in desirable areas). Not very successful - plan

4. Upgrading programs for slums (Dhivari - into 1.1 million new homes - new apartments, water, sewage systems. Improves sanitation and water supplies. - not successful because residents opposed to loss of community spirit)

Conclusion: which urban area has achieved the most success? London. Mumbai has slums which provide multiplier effect of economic inequality.

Describe the pattern of urbanisation since 1945

Populations of urban areas is increasing: in 1950, 30% population lived in urban areas, and in 2014, over 50% population lived in urban areas)

Urbanisation occurred earlier in developed countries due to industrial revolution and subsequent economic opportunities, while developing countries have seen rapid urbanisation more recently due to migration and globalisation since 1945.

what are the 4 processes that affect the populations of cities?

• urbanisation: growth of proportion of people living in urban areas (due to migration and natural increase)

• suburbanisation: migration from the city center to the outskirts. (due to it being crowded and due to improved transport links) - leads to rich on outside and poor on inside = economic and ethnic segregation

• counter-urbanisation: movement out of city to surrounding villages/ rural areas. (due to improved transport and communication links mean they can commute) = leads to housing estates (expensive) so young people move out and av age of area increases

• urban resurgence: movement of people back into the city center (due to social, economic and environmental factors being improved in the city center = more attractive). leads to new shops opening - boosts local economy = housing prices increase = poor forced out

what is an urban form? (definition)

physical characteristics that make up a city

how have the factors that affect cities’ forms changed over time?

in the past:

• cities established near water sources, natural resources, defensive positions, soil

in the present:

• physical factors: topography, water, natural resources, land type

• human factors: planning (slums), infrastructure, land value

how do cities in the developed world have different land use patterns to those in the developing world?

HICs:

• in urban areas: CBDs surrounded by housing = CBD have high land value but high density housing = expensive and low quality of life

• in rural areas: low land value = low density = high prices = wealthy)

NEEs:

• housing in CBD expensive = wealthy - house prices decrease in value as you get further away from CBD

• zone of medium housing outskirts it (informal settlements + housing being improved)

• low land value on outskirts (limited access to water, electricity, transport so cheap = poor)

what are the recent changes in urban forms that cities in developed countries have seen? (aka what are the different strategies of urban regeneration?)

• Town centre mixed developments (e.g. Trinity Square, Gatestead built due to vacant and poor-quality land and now has 8 blocks of student accomodation, a Tesco, 35 joining retail units (shops and restaurants), office block, Primary care trsut of 1600m² and 700 parking spaces) - improves transport links and attracts visitors and residents (reurbanisation/ urban resurgence)

• Cultural and heritage quarters (regenerating urban areas with a focus on culture and heritage. e.g. historic dockyard and gunwharf quays in Portsmouth) - improves perception of place

• fortress developments (high security buildings - give it a safe environment for families but are very expensive and anti-homeless). e.g. US embassy in London

• gentrified areas (wealthy people move into rundown area, renovate an area and increase the land value which pushed poorer people out = social and ethnic segregation. (Shoreditch into Silicon roundabout pushed Bangladeshi community out)

• edge cities (areas of offices and shops near transport links due to cheaper land and increased private ownership of car) - leads to social and economic segregation. e.g. Croyden

what are the different urban land use models?

• Burgess Concentric (how land use patterns change over time)

• Hoyt Sector Model (how transportation routes affect land use)

• Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model (how secondary land use peaks affect land use patterns)

how are cities evolving to become post modern?

Modernism was about utilising the available space…

• away from uniform architecture (aesthetics now prioritised over practical use)

• more multi-use centres

• focus on tertiary (services) and quaternary (research) industry

• more to economic and social segregation

e.g. Las Vegas: highest tourist capacity in world. (Used to be a sleazy gambling city but is now a fantasy city due to investment in themed hotels along the strip like Caesar’s Palace). now half its revenue comes from retail, entertainment, hospitality. But, the lack of public amenities (urban greening), traffic, water and electricity used by tourists.