British Empire Essay Plans

The Empire brought few economic benefits to Britain in the years 1890 to 1914. Assess the validity of this view.

1. Trade

Agree

-1893 Imperial Federation League disbanded reflecting a waning interest in Empire's commercial importance

-trade was moving away from Empire towards other countries eg US and Europe-64m hunderweight of wheat with 30.7m US, 4m from Canada

-1896 value of British trade was £745m but only £183m with Empire-Non-imperial markets provided 75% of all imports and 66% of all exports

-1913 25% of imports for Britain

-dominions began trading with other countries eg Germany, Japan, Italy and US-rejected idea of imperial preference

Disagree

-India-20% of british exports=£150m

-colonies benefitted from manufactured goods eg textiles and railway

-Chamberlain and 'imperial preference'-mutual customs agreement within empire and protective tariffs on goods outside Empire

2. Resources/Employment

Agree

-1897 Tropical Africa 1.2% of exports and apart from cheese, apples, potatoes only 10% of all other foods

-imports of food undermined domestic production so wages fell and prevented improved living standards for workers

-stopped modernising 1900 Germ producing more coal and steel than Britain and 1910 Britain relying on rubber imports from Africa and asia, Germany started own synthetic rubber production- trailed in electrical and chemical engineering as less incentive to develop new products, innovation stifled

Disagree

-West Africa-timber, cocoa, rubber, palm oil (central to luxury items and gave Britain monopoly)

-India-tea and cotton

-South Africa and Aus-wool and sugar, NZ-lamb, Can 1914-10% beef and 15% flour

-Empire provided jobs eg colonial service, army but jobs domestically fell

3. Investment

Agree

-costs of establishing and maintaining control in hostile areas greater than the value-naval costs £16m annually (dreadnoughts-29 built-£1.7m each)

-administration, infrastructure army- Boer War 1899-1902 cost £250m

-loans with foreign nations may provide bigger returns and loans within empire eg India cotton mills may build up rival manufacturers

Disagree

-1900-1913 overseas investment increased £2bn to £4bn (x2 France and x3 Germany)

-40% of investement went to Empire-regarded as safe investment

-Colonial loans 1899 and colonial stocks 1900 allowed several projects eg railways in East Africa

-Importance of London- financial capital of world and managed 70% of shipping/insurance

-set standard for international monetary system forced other nations to adopt Gold Standard

J- In the beginning of this period, Britain was lulled into a false sense of security with Great Depression 1873 to 1896 as Britain relied heavily on Empire for their markets, which subsequently meant that they fell behind in modernising. They became increasingly reliant on other countries and Empire's economic benefits decreased such as the US and Empire became less important economically as whilst Britain benefitted from its investments, the costs of maintaining the colonies increased, which meant people at home suffered.

To what extent did British policies towards its colonies, mandates and Dominions strengthen the British Empire in the inter-war years?

1. Mandates-Palestine, Egypt, Iraq

-June 1919 League of Nations mandates agreements-assumed virtual imperial control

-had been unrest in Palestine since 1917 Balfour decleration as there was conflict within gov-london-pro-Jewish whilst authorities in Palestine were more sympathetic to arabsand with the Jewish national fund Jews began to buy Arabs out of their land

-1930 British limit on immigration but by 1933-influx of Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi persecution

-1936-20000 brit troops sent to deal with attacks on jews and from 1931-36 Jewish pop 17% to 28%

-1937 Peel Report-impossible to devise workable plan of partition

-1937-39-adopt policy of repression

-1939 Palestinian state created, Jewish immigration limited, Palestine would be independent within 10 yrs and Britain achieved meant temp stability during ww2

-1920-Iraq military involvement, 1921 Cairo Conf

-1922 and 1930 anglo-iraq treaty- 1927 oil discovered

-1932 Kingdom of Iraq given independence but Britain controlled oil industry and maintained bases

-1922 Egypt granted formal independence but Brit retained control over foreign and defence policies

-1936 Anglo Egyptian treaty and in 1939 took over to ensure control

J-British policies in Egypt and Iraq strengthened British empire significantly as they were able to retain control over key regions and resources whilst also pacifying demands for freedom and independence. In Palestine, there was significant unrest as British policies could not please everyone but they were able to manage the conflicts long enough to ensure a period of political stability in ww2.

2. India (colony)

-1919 Gov of India Act-limited system of self gov (Dyarchy)-Viceroy retained control of defence and foreign policy-changes largely at provincial levels

-1919 Rowlatt acts-arrest and imprison anyone without trial 'carrot and stick' 'divide and rule' led to April 1919 Amritsar Massacre 379 killed and 1200 wounded- INC Britain no longer had moral authority to rule, damaged as civilising influence

-Simon Commission 1929-30 allow provinces more power, Viceroy retain control over defence, security and foreign affairs nationalists continued to demand independence and dominion status-demand for change

-Round Table 1930-31 boycotted first one and no agreements made

-1935 Gov of India act- provinces should be self-governing, elected Indian Parliament, able to control aspects of their nation with exception of military and foreign affairs

-Gandhi- 1920-22 Non co-operation movement, 1930-34 Civil disobedience-March 1930-anti-salt tax campaign and may 1930 dharasana salt works

J-growing pressure for change and independence but India was still firmly under British control by the start of world war two with 2.5m Indians volunteering to fight, but Britain's rule in India had been significantly weakened

3. Dominions

-Battles eg Gallipoli and Vimy Ridge encouraged nationalist pride eg in Can and Aus and imperial connection with Britain questioned as dominions gained increased confidence and regarded themselves as equal partners

-could no longer expect automatic backing eg chanak crisis 1922

-Imperial Conf 1926 confirmed that dominions were 'autonomous communities' and 'united by a common allegiance to the Crown', Britain recognised they would break away if not given right to exercise own foreign policy

-1931 Statute of Westminister dominions should become independent nations and could pass their own laws-Canada drew closer to USA and relations with SA uneasy and with the formation of the British Commonwealth of Nations- only formal link was common allegiance to crown

-still relied on Britain for spending on military forces, Britain important economic market, many dominions felt attached to Britain, good terms with Aus and NZ

-IRA launched guerrilla war 1919-21 ended with Anglo-Irish treaty (1921)

-Irish free state (1922) treated as dominion but by 1939 Eire was becoming increasingly independent and adopted neutrality in ww2

-ensured Britain global influence, without cost of imperial rule, when Britain declared war on Germ 1939 so did the dominions apart from Ireland.

J-despite having little influence on foreign policy and internal affairs, there remained a good relationship strategically and economically with most of the dominions apart from Ireland.

Overall, British policies were strengthened during the inter war years. There was an increasing demand for independence and Britain's reputation had been damaged but Britain managed to employ policies that helped maintain control leading up to ww2 and it was only after the second world war that British power in its colonies, mandates and dominions faced a rapid decline.

The end of the First World War unleashed anti-imperialist national movements that successive British governments were unable to understand or to control. Assess the validity of this view with reference to the years 1919 to 1947.

1. India

-1919 Amritsar massacre 379 killed and 1200 wounded=no longer had moral authority to rule and damaged influence as a civilising force

-Pressure for independence eg Gandhi Civil Disobedience 1930-34 Dharasana Salt Works May 1930 1300 unarmed Indians beaten and US Webb Miller helped turn world opinion against British occupation of India

-5m Indians making sea salt became symbol of defiance and boycotts of British cloth also had a negative economic impact

BUT British rule in India remained secure until the Second World War

-2.5m Indians volunteered to fight and Nehru argued India should support Britain but of own free will

-British defeats against Japenese eg Singapore 1942 eliminated myth of 'white mans invincibility' creating disorder

-1942 Churchill and Cripps offered dominion status but india wanted full indpependence

-1942 Quit India campaign of civil disobedience

-1943 Benghal famine heightened resentment and 1945 Britain owed India £1375m

-1945 Labour gov decided it was no longer practical eg Keynes estimated it would cost more than £1bn a year to maintain control

-Lord Mountbatten and 15 Aug 1947 Partition of India and Indian independence

2. Dominions

- Battles such as Gallipoli 1915 and Vimy Ridge encouraged nationalist pride-1.3m dominion troops with Aus losing 58500 and Canada 56500

-had an increased confidence and regarded themselves as equal partners with imperial connection being questioned

-could no longer expect automatic backing eg chanak crisis 1922

-Imperial Conf 1926 confirmed that dominions were 'autonomous communities' and 'united by a common allegiance to the Crown', Britain recognised they would break away if not given right to exercise own foreign policy

-1931 Statute of Westminister dominions should become independent nations and could pass their own laws-Canada drew closer to USA and relations with SA uneasy and with the formation of the British Commonwealth of Nations- only formal link was common allegiance to crown

BUT dominions were still reliant on Britain and maintained a positive relationship which allowed them to maintain some economic and strategic influence

-Britain covered majority of military spending

-still felt attached to Britain eg ad relatives and friends

-when Britain declared war on Germ in 1939, all of the dominions followed

3. Middle East/Africa

-1916 Sykes-Picot line meant Britain acquired new territories despite the promises of independence which encouraged resentment as they moved from one Empire to another

-1917 Balfour Dec and promise of a new Jewish national home led to fierce conflict between Jews and Arabs in Palestine

-1929 anti-Jewish riots with British shooting dead 110 Arabs and 1937-39 policy of repression implemented

-Jews felt betrayed and failed to satisfy Arabs

BUT there was temporary stability and Egypt/Iraq little resistance and in Africa nationalist movements did not achieve their aims until well after ww2

-1932 Kingdom of Iraq independence

-1939 Egypt security over Suez Canal

-1919 National Congress of West Africa demanded greater representation and some concessions but had little influence

-1925 Kikuyu Central Association demanded concessions but Britain still retained control without any harsh resistance

J-WW1 threatened imperialism and encouraged nationalist movements but Britain did maintain control of empire until the late 1940s

The nationalist movements in India and Africa in the years 1919 to 1947 failed to achieve their objectives because the British were too powerful. Assess the validity of this view.

1. India-fail British too powerful

-1919 Amritsar massacre after 1919 Rowlatt acts-379 dead and 1200 injured, highlighted British strength and superiority

-Non-cooperation movement 1920-22 ended in violence and arrests with Gandhi being arrested and imprisoned until 1924

-Civil Disobedience 1930-34 Dharasana Salt Works May 1930 1300 unarmed Indians beaten and campaigns crumbled under firm gov action, 80,000 supporters arrested under Viceroy Willingdon but did succeed in changing public opinion about British rule in India

-INA defeated in 1944-45

-Aug 1942 Quit India movement ended with policy of repression with 100000 arrested

-only achieved impendence as they were ready to leave eg Labour gov, economic strain,

BUT did have some impact

March 1930 Anti Salt tax campaign 230 mile propaganda march led to 5m Indians making sea salt and became symbol of defiance as well as causing economic disruption

-Gov of India act 1935-limited power

-1947 Indian independence achieved

2. Failed because there were divisions within the nationalist movements

-divisions within congress as satyagraha could make India ungovernable

-Gandhi wanted united India based on agriculture and social equality

-Bose was leader of the radical wing forming the INA although his influence was limited as he died in a plane crash in Aug 1945

-Nehru was a loyal follower of Gandhi but more interested in politics and more aggressive tactics - relations with Mountbatten central to negotiations for independent India-1929 Pres of INC 1929 Purna Swaraj Dec 1947 first PM of India

-Jinnah leader of Muslim League in 1934 (blocked Gandhi's vision of united India), focused on campaigning for safety of Muslims and disagreed with Gandhi's tactics

-Gandhi called for hindu-muslim unity but regarded with suspicion blamed Gandhi for failure of Round Table and suspicious of Nehru and his relations with Mountbatten and Cripps

-British able to use divide and rule tactics, British favoured Muslim League throughout ww2 as Jinnah encouraged Muslims to support war effort and offer any assistance necessary-increased sympathy

-general election after war INC won majority in non-muslim states where as Muslim League won all seats reserved for Muslims-pressed for sep state of Pakistan=both unwilling to compromise

BUT the threat of civil war did mean Britain was eager to get out

-Independence achieved but not smoothly with at least 1m ppl dying

3. Africa

-1919 National Congress of West Africa formed and demanded greater representation, 1925 WASU founded and radicalism leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah emerged

-Kenya 1920 25000 white settlers pressured brit for self-gov, crammed over 1m Kikiyu into 2000 square miles and exploited them through heavy taxes, restricting wages and banning them growing tea and coffee 1923 Devonshire Dec but white settlers dominated-1925 KCA demanded concessions

J-Agree because they used repression to combat nationalist campaigns and independence was only achieved in India in 1947 after Britain decided they needed to leave due to economic cost. Although these nationalist movements pressured Britain, in India their lack of unity and disagreements over what independence for India looked like meant Britain was able to use divide and rule tactics to weaken Indian National Congress. In Africa, the challenges to British rule were increasing in this period as Africans were becoming increasingly educated and informed but ultimately these movements were more of a hinderance during this period.

To what extent was trade and commerce between Britain and Empire in the years 1919 to 1939 affected by the legacy of the First World War?

1. Immediate impact

-war had cost $35bn

-$4bn borrowed from the USA-dominant supplier of raw materials and industrial shipping

-financial and banking sector faced increased competition and traditional industries also facing competition eg Japan replaces Britiain as leading exporter of cotton textiles

-sterling removed from gold standard

-most capital investment overseas wiped out

-India had contributed £146m to war effort, Canada emerged as industrial power and Aus and NZ hit hard by disruptions of trade as relied heavily on British market

2. 1920s (struggled due to impact of ww1)

-no special preference for Empire

-tried to return to pre-1914 economic system and returned to Gold Standard 1925 to stabilise international trade

-value of pound set at $4.85 so £ was overvalued so it was difficult for Britain to compete in international markets as goods too expensive

-Britain had lost imperial trade eg India and Canada

-economic burden of Empire increased and Britain less able to pay costs of maintaining it, national debt grew and inflation became more severe

3. 1930s (greater emphasis on Empire-issues after ww1 intensified with GD but empire offered some reprieve)

-1929 Wall Street Crash shrunk world trade and meant Empire became more important for British trade

-1931 left Gold Standard

-imports from empire increased although exports did less well

-countries in empire fixed the value of their currency to the sterling, gave access to British market for countries in the Sterling Area and encouraged overseas investment

-1932 Ottowa Conf Britain abandoned free trade and introduced 1932 import duties act=placed 10% tax on all imports, Brit and dominions give each other's exports preferential treatment- reinforced importance of Empire in supplying foodstuffs and raw materials, trade with empire increased after 1932 whilst colonies remained dependent on British capital for investment

-1929 Brit exports to Empire 35% and 1938 31%

-1929 Brit imports from Empire 33% and 1938 41%

-increased dissatisfaction with colonial rule and Canada had benefitted from the war and was increasingly looking to the US

J- World War One had damaged Britain significantly as they lost key markets to competitors and failed in their attempts to return to the pre-war arrangements. Combined with the Great Depression in the 1930s, the effects of ww1 were shown as Britain became reliant on Empire. World War one was significant in shaping British economic policy 1919-39 as they were pushed out of markets they had previously dominated and subsequently strengthened their ties with empire.

To what extent were trade and commerce with the Empire and the Commonwealth of major importance to Britain in the years 1947 to 1967?

1. Empire is important

-informal control maintained Britain's global influence eg their position on the UN security council

-Malaya was vital to US dollar reserves as it provided 50% of USA's rubber imports and almost all of its tin-fought guerrilla insurgency

-provided essential imports of food and raw materials eg NZ meat and dairy, 1965 £1720m imports and £1365 exports were within the Commonwealth

-opportunities for investment 1956 60% of all overseas investments in shares and securities were in Empire

-City of London remained important financial centre for banking/insurance

2. Empire is less important

-1940 and 1945 Colonial Development and Welfare Acts and Colonial Development Corporation 1948 promoted colonial agriculture and industry (spending in West Africa £43.1m to £228.5m 1948-56) but often to secure US dollar reserves

-1948-51 Tanganyika groundnut scheme abandoned after costing £49m

-investment allowed them to create 'hard currency pool' to secure US dollar reserves to purchase US imports

-1967 sterling devaluation undermined Sterling Area

-1957 cost benefit review concluded that dismantling Empire would not damage Britain

-Cons Party focused on an end to imperial preference and move towards free trade

3. Europe and USA

-1948-52 USA provided $3.3bn in Marshall aid and 1946 Keynes negotiated a $3.75 loan

-Western Europe was rebuilding, provided a better cost-benefit analysis as no formal control costs or violence

-1965 exports to WE (32.5%) outstripped exports to Commonwealth (27.9%)

-applied for EEC in 1963 and 1967 but were rejected due to requirement for concessions on trade with commonwealth

J- Important during the 1940s-50s but by 1960s there was an increasing shift to Europe but throughout this period Britain was dependent on the US

To what extent was imperial and colonial policy in the years 1857-1890 influenced by international pressures?

1. Rivals-strategic

-shift in naval spending + focus on imperial defence-acquiring naval bases

-Empire became measure of international power-expansion was reactive eg in response to France's foothold in Indo-China annexed Malaya (1874) and 1880s German expansion in Cameroons, Togoland and Germ E.A.

-W.A. coastal interests required protection + forts built along Gold Coast with coastal defences in Gambia + Sierra Leone + Cape

-Russia by 1884 bordered Afghanistan

-France-Russia naval building programmes-Suez Canal 1875 44% to protect India

2. Economic

-prospect of trade with discovery of minerals + resources eg coal, iron, timber-Chartered Companies eg Royal Niger (1886) + Imperial BEA (1888)

-need for markets grew-cycle of dependency-resources used to manufacture goods to sell back-imp in GD (1873-96) demand for Brit goods in Europe fell

-C.C discouraged free comp + limited profits

-1884-85 Berlin Conf- effective occupation-resources

-Informal Empire-free trade agreements, commerce + shipping, 1865-Brit public capital in _____ £80m + 10% of Brit import/export

-threat of royal navy in Peru 1857 + Chile 1863 to ensure compliance with trade

-1880 Brit responsible for 75% of China's overseas trade

-no direct costs, could access profitable markets + obtain cheap raw materials without territorial control

3. Individuals

-explorers-Livingstone-tales of adventure, located vast reserves of raw materials which merchants + traders sought to exploit

-Livingstone to Africa 1858 'open path for commerce + Christianity'

-Goldie-palm oil-Niger-1886 Royal Charter + Rhodes Cons Gold (1889)

-colonial administrators undertook own action eg Frere 1878 Zulu ultimatum or 'Gordon of Khartoum' 1884-85-Sudan

-Zanzibar- John Kirk helped assume control

J-Initially, from 1857 there were less international pressures on imperial rule, policy was driven primarily by economic gain. Individuals drove expansion in search of new markets/trade and later, rival threatened financial interests

To what extent did Britain rely on repression to maintain control in India and the Middle East in the years 1919-39?

1. India

-Rowlatt Acts 1919-arrest + imprison anyone without trial

>1919 Amritsar massacre-379 dead + 1200 wounded

>however, damaged rep as civilising influence=no longer had moral authority to rule

-Civil disobedience (1930-34)-80000 arrests under Viceroy Willingdon

>May 1930 Dharasana Salt Works-1300 unarmed Indians beaten

>collapsed under firm gov action

BUT they did implement policies to maintain control

-Gov of India Act 1919 + 1935- lim self-gov (dyarchy) + Viceroy retained control over foreign + defence policies

-Simon Commission (1929-30)-Indians given power at prov lvls-Indians demanded dominion status

-Round Table Conf (1930+31)-no agreements reached

-'carrot + stick' approach with independence + 'divide + rule'

2. Palestine

-1929 serious anti-Jewish riots >Brit kill 110 Arabs

-1936 20000 troops attacks on Jews=militia group (Haganah)

-1937-39 policy of repression-100 Arabs hanged

BUT despite violence, did use polices

-1920 civil gov under Herbert Samuel

>attempted to bring Arabs + Jews unto elected rep bodies w/ influence over gov policy

>religious tension prevented cooperation

-1937 Peel Report-Palestine partitioned-impossible

3. Egypt + Iraq

-1920-military intervention (widespread Muslim revolt in Baghdad + Kurdish rebellion)

>used harsh tactics eg air power

-civil disobedience in Egypt w/ attacks on military bases

>800 E killed + 1600 wounded

BUT managed to maintain control through treaties

-1922 + 30 Anglo Iraq Treaty

-1932 Kingdom of Iraq independence but Brit control oil industry + military bases

-1922-E granted formal independence

-1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty

J-In India, able to combat threats to Brit rule with violence but using independence to ensure compliance was more effective. In Palestine, policies always met with resistance + repression became increasingly important. Egypt + Iraq-little need for repression. Overall, Britain able to maintain control without repression most of the time apart fro Palestine therefore relied upon very heavily instead used carrot and stick of independence

The ruthless suppression of the 1857 Indian Mutiny was the main reason Indians did not challenge British rule 1857-1890. Assess validity of this view.

1. Ruthless suppression

-Mughal Emperor's sons executed

-Delhi + Lucknow- villages burnt, mutineers tortured

-strapped to canons + fired (100,000)-body no longer whole in afterlife

-overthrowing by force would lead to catastrophe

-90000 Brit troops-suppressed by Jun 1858

-widespread execution by hanging eg Muslim-pushed pork into mouths + sewed them in pig skins

-widespread reprisals, torture, execution so they would fear challenging Brit rule or homes would be destroyed + appalling punishments

-any attempt to overthrow Brit rule will end in defeat

2. Reforms meant Indians could not challenge Brit rule (PE)

-Gov of India Act 1858-removed EIC + direct control

-1877 Queen Vic Empress of India- sign of power

-Sec of State-Indian Civil Service- 1500 white civil servants

-Viceroy + Native princes-British resident

-mixed by caste-prevent common identity

-not allowed artillery weapons

-2:1 1861 70000 B: 135,000

-only allowed Indian opposition to Brit rule in 1885-INC

-Imperial Police Force used for defence

-railways used to move troops + prevent local uprisings

-Brit controlled all major cities/towns + principal forts

-Brit now had access to Suez Canal to send troops quickly

3. Reforms designed to benefit Indians so no need for mutiny (ESE)

-recognised enforcing Christian values was counterproductive-restrict missionary activity

-Vic Canning-tour of India 1859-61 (returned some land titles + Star of India)

-Indians could join ICS (albeit restricted)

-unis in Madras, Bombay + Calcutta- 30 yrs 60000

-irrigation to improve crop production

-railways to increase movement around India-1890-20000m (jobs)

J-Britain was not reliant on Indian peasants + found them easy to control. To ensure Brit was not challenged-tried to gain support from m/c Indians-education/society + emphasise power through Viceroy + military control

To what extent were the bonds between Britain + the Dominions weakened between 1919-39?

1. Ireland

-religious division between Catholics + Protestants

-challenge of nationalism-Sinn Fein (political) + IRA (military)-Eamon de Valera + Michael Collins-home rule

-flares up during WWI-Easter rising (1916)

-1919-21- violence forces change-Anglo-Irish treaty- separate Ireland (NI as dominion)

-challenge from IFS- De Valera turns Eire into republic (1937) + declares neutrality in WWII (1939)

-Link-Ireland clear challenge to Empire + bonds weakened/ended

2. Dominions-stronger

-dominions-contributed to Brit war effort- 1.3m troops from Dominions + 1/3 munitions + wheat from Can

-continued fam/friends ties with Brit/Dominions-helped positive r/s

-Dominions felt sense of attachment to 'mother country' through Crown

-BUT changing dynamic to r/s established Dominions Office (1925)

-Imperial Conf (1926)-reference to a 'Commonwealth of Nations'-shared values of democracy + human rights Balfour Dec 'autonomous communities', equal in status, 'common allegiance to Crown'

-1931 Statute of Westminster-'turning point' in relations-Dominions effectively independent nations (pass own laws)

-1932 Ottowa Conf- closer ties + imp pref, impact of Depression

-1930s-imp challenge of Japan draws Aus/NZ closer to Brit + declare war in 1939

J-strengthened bonds but changing relationship

3. Bonds weakened

-Impact of WWI-fought at Gallipoli (1915) + Passchendale (1917)-losses-Aus- 58,500- encouraged nationalism

-1919 Paris Peace Conf- represented themselves 'equal partners'

-Questioning of imperial connection-weakening of Brit's control-pursue a more independent foreign policy eg Chanak crisis (1922)

-Growing move for independence-SA + weakening r/s with Canada-move closer to US

BUT Brit still maintained control + global influence without cost

J-bonds weakened by WWII-example of Ireland but r/s was managed by Brit + allowed change

British rule was disastrous for both the Indians and the Bantu of South Africa in the years 1857 to 1890. Assess the validity of this view.

1. India-disastrous

-100,000 killed in Mutiny 1857-58, Mughal emperors son executed, appalling reprisals eg Muslims-stuffed pork in mouths and wrapped in pig skin, shot out of canons so body wasn't whole in afterlife,

-1860-1900 14.5m died from famine- encouraged growth of high value crops at expense of crops that fed population-dependent on food imports

-limited primary education and educational initiatives only benefitted a limited few- create the Anglo-Indian elite-part of 'divide and rule'

2. India-less disastorous

-1861 positions in INC open to Indians but exams held in London, 1861 Star of India, land returned to Native Princes, traditional Indian practices shown more respect, public health measures implemented

-Unis in Bombay, Madras, Calcutta following 1857-60,000 indians entered. Elite schools eg Mayo College

-jobs provided in railways, army, police and civil service

-railways built eg 1890 20000m of track and 1900 25000m

-irrigation 19000 70000m of canal but only 6%

-Gov of India Act 1858-oversaw 565 states (40%) but had British resident

3. Largely disastrous for Bantu

-driving force for change was diamonds (1867) + gold (1886)

>Basutoland (1868) + GLW (1871) + GLE (1873)

>loss of tribal lands

-Boer expansion creates conflict >Pedi >Zulu

-Brit defeat >Pedi (1879) >Zulu (1879)

>actions of Frere

>annexation of Zululand (1887)=becomes unstable- disease + famine

-economic expansion-impact on Bantu

>loss of land >loss of rights >segregation of blacks

-role of Rhodes + BSAC

>creation of N/S Rhodesia- ½ Ndbele tribe wiped out

+ limited opportunities-jobs/mines

-Fingoes-helped Brit >bush fighters (knew the terrain) >scouts

-Swazis-helped Brit fight Pedi (allowed Swaziland)

J-Indian rule was disastrous for the Bantu people and partially disastrous for the Indians. The immediate repercussions of the Indian mutiny were appalling and India's economy was subjugated to British needs as well as the army being reformed to prevent another uprising. But there was a degree of reform that improved lives for a limted few and British rule was largely regarded with indifference for the majority of the Indian population but it was undoubtedly disastrous for Bantu

British reforms in India between the two World Wars were designed to avoid fundamental change in India's status. Assess the validity of this view.

1. 1919-limited change

-Montagu-Chelmsford reforms-responsible self-gov-dyarchy

-Gov of India Act-local changes

-However, continuity of British authority eg Rowlatt Acts (1919), Amritsar massacre (April 1919)

-Viceroy still retained control over India

2. 1929-31

-growing challenge of nationalism eg Gandhi

-1929-30 Simon commission + Round Table 1930+31

-Review of Gov of India Act (1919) + idea of self-gov

-No formal changes and no agreement on future of India

-India was not given Dominion status

-Viceroy retained control over India

3. 1935

-Gov of India Act

-positive changes >federal gov >provinces are self-gov >7m to 35m increase in franchise

-but changes only at a local level as Viceroy still retained overall control

J-overall degree of lim change but at prov level-power of Viceroy maintained so Brit avoided fundamental change

British policies towards India completely changed in the years 1857 to 1877. Assess the validity of this view

1. Political and Army

-Gov of India Act 1858-EIC dissolved, Raj established

>Viceroy ruled India on everyday basis and relied on Native Princes but had lim control due to British resident

-British supremacy-Empress of India Jan 1877

-Indian soldiers never to outnumber British of more than 2:1

>sepoys not allowed artillery weapons >soldiers mixed by caste and religion >imperial police force >recruitment from Punjab

2. Society and Education

-imposing Western Christian values was increasing resentment-counterproductive

>greater respect to religious practices leaving marriage and family law in their hands

-Viceroy Canning's tour (1859-61) >Star of India >ICS open to Indians

-maintained deliberate social distance eg Simla

-'divide and rule'

-universities in Bombay, madras and Calcutta in 1857-60000 Indians entered and schools eg Mayo college-created Anglo-Indian elite

>majority illiterate and lack of primary education

3. Economic

-railways 1857 288 miles and by 1890 there was 20000 but most villages lacked mud roads

-irrigated 6% of land

-many Indians remained in poverty due to Brit exploitation as high value crops at expense of plantation crops such as rye and barley-dependent on food imports

-1860-1900 14.5m died from famine-1877 Delhi Durbar

J-changes but largely remained the same eg army saw most change but economic policy continued to be focused on British needs, continued to be about exploiting India with greater emphasis on preventing another uprising

'British rule in India combined self-interest with an arrogant attitude of racial superiority towards the native population.' Assess the validity of this view with reference to the years 1857 to c1900.

Intro-driven by economic self-interest started by EIC

-White man's superior 'benign rule'

-believed they were on a civilising mission

1. Self-interest

-main factor driving British rule in India

-markets for Brit goods eg cotton textiles (forced out Indian manufacturers)

-Britain bought up land + introduced landlord system (charge expensive rent)

-introduction of railways, postal service-done for benefit of British rule

2. Racial superiority

-British racial superiority used to justify rule in India

-Westernisation-English as official language, traditions banned eg suttee, complex legal system favoured Britain

-ICS-1500 British civil servants ruled 250m Indians

-Queen Vic-Empress of India (1877)

-'divide + rule' used to maintain control by emphasising divisions between Hindus + Muslims

-British administrators lived separately from Indian people eg Simla

3. Civilising mission

-justified in improving lives of Indians-'benign rule'

-education-universities-Madras, Bombay + Calcutta-60,000 students

-aim to create Anglo-Indian elite-Mayo college

-Star of India medals awarded + created Indian knights (British nobility)

-farming-irrigation schemes (6%), employment-railways, army, police + civil service

J-British rule had an element of 'civilising mission' but very few Indians benefitted, in reality British rule was driven by economic self-interest with racial superiority used to justify British rule

In the years 1947 to 1967, Britain lost all interest in its Empire. Assess the validity of this view.

1. Political/government

-Feb 1960 Winds of change-no longer practical for Britain to hold on to its Empire and the need for independence was impossible to ignore-realisation that British imperial power was coming to an end

-Suez Crisis 1956- no longer major independent power, could no longer manage 'retreat'

-1967 East of Suez decision-withdrawing from most of its overseas military bases

-changing priorities with Labour gov (1948-51) Welfare state and NHS eg the Blitz had devastated major cities and Britain was heavily dependent on food imports

-USA- apparent British prestige was too fragile for them to act independently (Suez 1956) eg Marshall aid-$3bn and devaluation of sterling, ANZUS (1951)-turned to US for their security needs

-still a great power eg role on UN security council, nuclear weapons

2. Economic

-Second Colonial occupation eg Malaya-50% of rubber and all of its tin but to earn US dollars, 1948 Colonial Development Coorporation

-Europe- Marshall aid + reconstruction (allowed private enterprise), 1957 EEC applications in 1963 and 1967, 1957 cost benefit review, 1965-exports Commonwealth 28% and Western Europe 33%

-1967 devaluation of Sterling £1-$2.80-$2.40

3. Popular culture/immigration

-10m British people in expatriate communities, Anglican Church had more members in Africa than Britain, Union Jack remained in many flags, words like bungalow and zombie entered British language, imperial royal honours eg CBE, MBE, OBE, cricket and rugby regularly played

-patriotic music became tradition in 'the last night of the proms' eg 'land of hope and glory', Lawrence of Arabia (1962)

-BUT interest in empire had undoubtedly declined, 1962 Empire day was abolished, authoritarian nature of colonial govs questioned eg racial laws in Rhodesia, appeal of imperial topics in the media declined, for example adventure books like the Eagle abandoned imperial topics,

-still had links with the Commonwealth with the Queen as the head of the commonwealth and Commonwealth games

-1946-57 1m people left Brit for dominions as they offered better prospects with

-1960s shifted more towards people immigrating from Empire to Britain-1967 Black pop 1m, 1960-62 more migrants arrived than whole of 20th century

-1948 British Nationality Act, eg 1956-London transport employed 4000

-initially reaction was one of intrigue and uncertainty as people introduced to cultures never seen before but as post war boom slowed immigrants blamed for social problems, seen as threatening, dilution of Brit cultural identity and protection of houses

-racism-White defence league, 1958 Teddy boy youths. 1962 survey revealed 90% of Brit pop supported legislation to curb immigration

-1962 Commonwealth immigrants act-difficult to obtain permits and lacked employment skills-70% of ppl agreed 1964 used as 'vote winner' in general election

-1965 Race Relations Act-forbade discrimination in public places and Race relations board set up but wasn't a criminal offence

J-During this period, there was a declining interest in Empire as America and Europe became more prominent and decolonisation meant there was less interest however the integration of foreign peoples into British society meant Empire inhabitants were treated with disrespect and violence, highlighting that there was some interest in Empire but this was largely negative.

To what extent did Britain face serious challenges in the Middle East in the period 1919 to 1939?

1. Palestine

-Agree

>after the balfour decleration Nov 1917 promising a 'national home' for Jews without undermining Arabs-there was some tension

>1920 interim gov attempts by Herbert Samuel to bring Arabs and Jews into elected representative bodies failed due to religious tension

>Jews were buying land using Jewish National Fund that Arabs had rented causing Arabs to be evicted

>1930/1931 gov recommended restrictions on immigration-angering the Jews

>1929 Anti-Jewish riots-110 dead Arabs

>1936 20,000 troops sent and jews form militia group the Haganah

>1939 Jews made up a third of the population and Peel Report 1937 recommended partition which angered the Arabs

>1937-39 policy of repression-100 Arab terrorists hanged

Disagree

>1939 changed policy, 10,000 a year for five years, Palestine should be independent

>period of temporary stability during the war with Jews being forced to accept due to Nazis

J-Palestine was a serious challenge during 1919 to 1939, constant source of tension with riots and violence and by 1939 change in policy had failed to satisfy Arabs and angered the Jews

2. Iraq

Agree

-1920 Muslim revolt in Baghdad and Kurdish rebellion forced Britain to intervene, used military force which increased resentment

Disagree-largely used policies to maintain control

>1921 Cairo conf-introduced limited self gov

>1922 Anglo-Iraq treaty-Faisal I appointed King but Brit advisers appointed

>1930 Anglo Iraq treaty-secured military and commercial rights after discovery of oil (1927)

>1932 Kingdom of Iraq gained independence but had control over Brit industry and maintained air bases

J-No managed to maintain control with little resistance, given independence which allowed Britain influence without direct control, sound political and diplomatic move as ensured British dominance without provoking nationalist revolt

3. Egypt

Agree

>1919 civil disobedience-riots, strikes, attacked British military bases, 800 dead and 1600 wounded

Disagree

>1922 granted formal independence but Brit maintained control over foreign and defence policies

>1939 Anglo-Egyptian treaty 10000 troops occupy Suez Canal zone

>1939 took control to ensure safety of Suez

J-No faced some opposition but largely maintained control without serious challenges

J-Overall, Britain largely maintained control without any serious challenges wg Egypt and Iraq apart from in Palestine.